Cheatsheet C2

Foundations

The Alphabet and Spelling

Point	Rule	Example	English
27 letters	five vowels, a, e, i, o, u; ñ is a letter of its own	niño / español	child / Spanish
Letter names	each name is a short word; spelling aloud uses the names	¿Cómo se escribe Ana? — a, ene, a.	How do you spell Ana? — A, N, A.
v and w	v is called ve, and w doble uv is called uve, and w uve doble	¿Con be o con ve?¿Con be o con uve?	With a b or with a v?
Two letters	ch / ll / rr / qu / gu write one sound with two letters	chico / calle / perro	boy / street / dog
Silent h	h is never pronounced	hola / hora	hello / hour
c and qu	c before a, o, u, qu before e, i, for one sound, /k/	casa / queso	house / cheese
g and gu	g before a, o, u, gu before e, i, for one sound, /g/	gato / guitarra	cat / guitar
z and c	z before a, o, u, c before e, i, for one sound, /s/z before a, o, u, c before e, i, for one sound, /θ/	zapato / cine	shoe / cinema
j and g	j before any vowel and g before e, i sound the same, /x/	jamón / gente	ham / people
b and v	one sound, /b/, with two spellings; each word keeps its own	bueno / vino	good / wine
ll and y	ll and y before a vowel sound the same, /ʝ/	calle / yo	street / I
Small letters	days, months, languages and nationalities start with a small letter	Los lunes estudio inglés.	On Mondays I study English.
¿ ? / ¡ !	questions and exclamations open with an upside-down mark	¿Dónde vives? / ¡Hola!	Where do you live? / Hello!
B2Endings	the ending fixes the letter: -bilidad, -jero, -illa	posibilidad / consejero / camilla	possibility / adviser / stretcher
B2Capital letters	capital letter if the name means the one unique thing; small letter in the ordinary sense	La Tierra gira alrededor del Sol. / Hace sol en la tierra de mis abuelos.	The Earth goes round the Sun. / It is sunny in the land of my grandparents.
B2sino / si no	sino contrasts two ideas; si no gives a negative condition	No es antipático, sino tímido. / Si no estudias, nunca aprobarás.	He is not unfriendly but shy. / If you don't study, you will never pass.
C1porque / por qué	porque gives the reason; por qué asks a question and takes an accent	Estudio porque quiero. / Me pregunto por qué tardó.	I study because I want to. / I wonder why he was late.
C1Optional spellings	the simplified forms are accepted; the full form is preferred	septiembre / setiembre	September / September
C2Words that sound alike	the meaning decides between words that sound alike	Hojeo el periódico en el tren. / Ojeo la sala buscando a Ana.	I leaf through the newspaper on the train. / I glance round the room looking for Ana.
C2con qué / con que / conque	con qué asks; con que links; conque concludes	¿Con qué escribo? / Ya terminaste, conque ahora vete.	What do I write with? / You have finished, so now go.
Trap	the u of gue and gui is silent; ü makes it sound	pingüino	penguin

Sounds and Stress

Point	Rule	Example	English
Vowels	five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, each with one short, clear sound	banana	banana
r / rr	one r between vowels is a single tap; rr is a trill	pero / perro	but / dog
j / ge / gi	a strong, rough h from the back of the throat	jardín / gente	garden / people
ñ	like ny in English canyon	mañana	tomorrow
z / ce / ci	sound /s/, like s	zapato / ciudad	shoe / city
z / ce / ci	sound /θ/, like th in English think	zapato / ciudad	shoe / city
ll / y	one sound, /ʝ/, close to y in English yes	calle / yo	street / I
A1Stress	ending in a vowel, n or s: the next-to-last syllable	casa / hablan	house / they speak
A1Stress	ending in any other consonant: the last syllable	hablar / ciudad	to speak / city
A1Written accent	marks a stress that breaks those two rules	café / árbol / música	coffee / tree / music
A1Words written alike	an accent tells apart two words that are written the same	Tú tienes tu libro.	You have your book.
A2Words written alike	sí and si, mí and mi follow the same rule	Sí, es para mí.	Yes, it's for me.
A1Trap	question words always carry an accent	¿Dónde vives?	Where do you live?
B2The syllable	a consonant between vowels goes with the next vowel	me-sa / pro-bar / an-dar	table / to try / to walk
B2Synalepha	the last vowel of a word and the first vowel of the next word form one syllable	todo eso → to-doe-so	all that
B2Trap	question words also take an accent in reported speech	No sé cuál me gusta más.	I don't know which one I like more.
C1Aún and aun	aún means “still” or “yet”; aun, without an accent, means “even”	Aún no ha llegado.	He hasn't arrived yet.
C1Unstressed words	don, san, señor, buen and the relative donde lose their stress	Saludé a don Emilio.	I greeted Mr. Emilio.
C2Más and mas	mas, without an accent, means “but”; más marks quantity	Le dije que sí, mas no estaba seguro.	I told him yes, but I wasn't sure.
C2Variants	pronunciation changes with the region and the register	pan → /paŋ/	bread

Numbers

Point	Rule	Example	English
0–15	each has its own word	once / quince	eleven / fifteen
16–29	one word: dieci- or veinti- and the unit	dieciséis / veintidós	sixteen / twenty-two
31–99	the tens, y, the unit: three words	treinta y uno / cuarenta y cinco	thirty-one / forty-five
100	cien alone or before a noun, ciento before another number	cien euros / ciento veinte	a hundred euros / a hundred and twenty
1000	mil takes no un and stays the same after any number	mil / tres mil	a thousand / three thousand
A1Hundreds	from 200, they agree with the noun	doscientas personas	two hundred people
A1millón	a noun: millones in the plural, de before what it counts	dos millones de personas	two million people
A1uno	un before a masculine noun, una before a feminine one	veintiún años / veintiuna casas	twenty-one years / twenty-one houses
A1Ordinals	primero to décimo; they agree with the noun and go before it	la segunda calle	the second street
A2primer / tercer	primero and tercero drop -o before a masculine singular noun	el primer día / el tercer piso	the first day / the third floor
B211.º–20.º	from 13.º on, one word: decimo- and the ordinal	undécimo / decimoquinto	eleventh / fifteenth
B2Fractions	a fraction name and de with the whole that is divided	un tercio de la tarta / la mitad de los adultos	a third of the cake / half of the adults
B2Multiples	el doble, el triple, el cuádruple; or veces with más or menos	el doble de dinero / diez veces más	twice as much money / ten times more
B2Percentages	the number, por ciento and de with the group	el 20 por ciento de los ciudadanos / tres de cada cinco mujeres	20 percent of the citizens / three out of every five women
C1Fractions from 1/11	the cardinal number with -avo; with parte the ordinal also works	la veinteava parte / la vigésima parte	the twentieth part / the twentieth part
C2Larger ordinals	tens up to centésimo; 21.º to 29.º in one word or two	vigesimoprimero / vigésimo primero	twenty-first / twenty-first
C2Roman numerals	seven letters that add up; a smaller one before a larger one subtracts	IX / MCMLXVI	nine / 1966
C2Reading Roman numerals	kings: ordinal up to X, cardinal from XI; centuries: cardinal	Alfonso X → Alfonso décimo / Alfonso XIII → Alfonso trece	Alfonso the Tenth / Alfonso the Thirteenth
Trap	500, 700 and 900 change their first part	quinientos / setecientos / novecientos	five hundred / seven hundred / nine hundred
Trap	no y after the hundreds	ciento veinte / doscientos cinco	a hundred and twenty / two hundred and five

Intonation

Point	Rule	Example	English
Cadence	the voice falls at the end: the sentence is complete	Me voy a casa. ↘	I'm going home.
Anticadence	the voice rises at the end: a yes-no question	¿Vienes mañana? ↗	Are you coming tomorrow?
Pause	separates the subordinate clause from the main clause	Si llueve // nos quedamos en casa.	If it rains, we stay at home.
Alternative question	the voice rises on the first part and falls on the last	¿Vamos en tren ↗ o en autobús? ↘	Shall we go by train or by bus?
Complete list	the voice rises a little on each item and falls on the last	Compré pan, ↗ leche ↗ y queso. ↘	I bought bread, milk and cheese.
Question word	the pitch is high on that word and the voice falls at the end	¿Dónde vives? ↘	Where do you live?
C1Ambiguity	the pause changes the meaning of the sentence	Los alumnos que estudian aprobarán. · Los alumnos // que estudian // aprobarán.	The students who study will pass. / The students, who study, will pass.
C1Echo question	repeats what was said and the voice rises at the end	¿Que si tengo hambre? ↗	Am I hungry?
C1Emphasis	the strongest stress falls on the word being highlighted	Fui yo quien lo rompió.	I was the one who broke it.
C2Strong emotion	circumflex inflections: the voice rises and falls within one group	Con decirte // que llevo una hora esperando el autobús.	Let me just tell you that I've been waiting for the bus for an hour.
C2Irony	the contour is flat and weakens the rise in intensity	¡Qué bien has dejado la cocina!	Look how nicely you've left the kitchen!
C2Rhythm	in proverbs and poems, the stresses fall at regular intervals	A mal tiempo, buena cara.	Keep a brave face in bad times.

Nouns and determiners

Gender

Point	Rule	Example	English
Masculine	most nouns in -o	el libro	the book
Feminine	most nouns in -a	la casa	the house
Other endings	-e or a consonant: learn the article with the noun	el café / la noche	the coffee / the night
People	-o → -a	la niña / la amiga	the girl / the (female) friend
A2People in -or	the feminine adds -a	profesor → profesora	(female) teacher
A2One form for both	-ista, -nte: the article shows the sex	el estudiante / la estudiante	the (male) student / the (female) student
A2Feminine endings	-ción, -sión, -dad, -tad, -tud	la canción / la ciudad	the song / the city
A2Masculine endings	-aje, -or, and -ma in many nouns	el viaje / el problema	the trip / the problem
Agreement	articles and adjectives follow the noun	una casa blanca	a white house
B2More feminine endings	-triz, -ez, -eza, -umbre	la certeza / la costumbre	certainty / custom
C1Gender and meaning	the gender tells two words apart	el capital ≠ la capital	capital (money) ≠ capital (city)
C2Gender marking in Latin America	the standard norm keeps the single form	la estudiante / el pianista	the (female) student / the (male) pianist
A2Trap	día is masculine although it ends in -a	Buenos días.	Good morning.
A2Trap	mano is feminine although it ends in -o	Tengo las manos frías.	My hands are cold.

Plurals

Point	Rule	Example	English
Vowel	+ s	casa → casas	houses
Consonant	+ es	ciudad → ciudades	cities
A2-z	z → ces	lápiz → lápices	pencils
Agreement	article and adjective go plural too	las casas blancas	the white houses
A2Unstressed -s	no change	el lunes → los lunes	Mondays
A2Written accent	the stress stays: the accent comes or goes	canción → canciones / joven → jóvenes	songs / young people
A2Plural only	one object with a plural name	Mis pantalones son nuevos.	My trousers are new.
B2-í, -ú	add -s or -es, depending on the word	menú → menús / rubí → rubíes	menus / rubies
C1Foreign words	the adapted form follows the Spanish rule	club → clubes / estándar → estándares	clubs / standards
C2Latinisms	regular plural, except for a few irregular forms	déficit → déficits / álbum → álbumes	deficits / albums
A2Trap	-z becomes -c: lápices, veces	Tengo dos lápices.	I have two pencils.
A2Trap	gente is singular	La gente es amable.	People are friendly.

Articles

Point	Rule	Example	English
Definite	el / la / los / las	¿Dónde está el baño?	Where is the bathroom?
Indefinite	un / una / unos / unas	Tengo un hermano.	I have a brother.
Contractions	a el → al, de el → del	Voy al mercado.	I'm going to the market.
In general	things in general take the definite article	Me gustan los perros.	I like dogs.
Days	el lunes means “on Monday”	Te llamo el lunes.	I'll call you on Monday.
No article	a job after ser	Ana es profesora.	Ana is a teacher.
A2No article	an amount that is not counted	Compro pan.	I'm buying bread.
A2Stressed a	el before a feminine noun in stressed a	El agua está fría.	The water is cold.
A2Body	the article instead of a possessive	Me duele la cabeza.	My head hurts.
B2Proper names	article and a capital letter for a one-of-a-kind thing	La Tierra gira alrededor del Sol.	The Earth goes around the Sun.
B2Neuter lo	lo + adjective: the quality; lo de + noun: the matter	Lo mejor es el parque. / Siento lo de ayer.	The best thing is the park. / I'm sorry about yesterday.
C1Emphatic article	lo + adverb + que: the degree; la + noun + que: the emphasis	¡Lo mal que cantó! / ¡La cara que puso!	How badly he sang! / What a face he pulled!
C1No determiner	no article after nombrar and declarar, and with an instrument	La nombraron directora. / Escribió la carta a mano.	They named her director. / He wrote the letter by hand.
C2Proper names, social use	article before a first name or a surname: familiarity, annoyance or affection	¡Ya está la Ana hablando de su jefe!	There goes Ana again, talking about her boss!
Trap	no un or una before a job	Mi padre es médico.	My father is a doctor.

This, That, That Over There

Point	Rule	Example	English
Near me	este / esta / estos / estas	Este libro es nuevo.	This book is new.
Near you	ese / esa / esos / esas	¿Cuánto cuesta esa mochila?	How much is that backpack?
Far from us both	aquel / aquella / aquellos / aquellas	Aquella casa es de mi abuela.	That house over there is my grandmother's.
Agreement	gender and number of the noun	Me gustan estos zapatos.	I like these shoes.
Alone	for a known noun, with no written accent	No quiero este libro; quiero ese.	I don't want this book; I want that one.
Neuter	esto, eso: a thing with no name yet	¿Qué es esto?	What is this?
A2What was said	eso for what someone just said	Eso es verdad.	That's true.
A2Time	the present period: este año	Esta semana tengo exámenes.	I have exams this week.
B2In discourse	este and ese pick up a noun already mentioned; esto announces what follows	Escucha esto: mañana no hay clase.	Listen to this: there is no class tomorrow.
C1After the noun	after qué and the noun: admiration or nostalgia	¡Qué tiempos aquellos!	What times those were!
C2Este and a first name	este and a first name point to someone both speakers know	Este Pablo del que hablas, ¿es el hermano de Sara?	Is this Pablo you're talking about Sara's brother?
Trap	before a noun, este, never esto	Quiero este pastel.	I want this cake.
Trap	introducing a person: este / esta	Este es mi hermano.	This is my brother.

Possessives

Point	Rule	Example	English
Before the noun	mi / tu / su / nuestro / su	Mi casa es pequeña.	My house is small.
Before the noun	vosotros: vuestro	¿Es vuestra casa?	Is it your house?
Agreement	the number of the thing owned; nuestro also its gender	Nuestros hijos viven en Quito.	Our children live in Quito.
Owner as a noun	de + owner	la casa de Ana	Ana's house
A2After ser	mío / tuyo / suyo / nuestro / suyo	Esta mochila es mía.	This backpack is mine.
A2Alone	the article and the long form	Mi casa es grande, y la tuya es bonita.	My house is big, and yours is pretty.
B1After the noun	one of several	Marta es una amiga mía.	Marta is a friend of mine.
B1A clear owner	de él, de ella, de usted instead of su	Llevé la maleta de ella.	I carried her suitcase.
B2With a numeral or quantifier	the short form goes before the numeral	Mis cuatro hijos viven aquí.	My four children live here.
C1lo with a possessive	what belongs to someone, or the effort something costs	Pasé lo mío para llegar.	I had my share of trouble getting there.
C2Intensifier	muy or más before the long form	Ese gesto es muy mío.	That gesture is very much mine.
Trap	su is his, her, its, their, and your for usted	Ana vive con su hermano.	Ana lives with her brother.
Trap	mis before a plural noun	Mis padres son de Cuba.	My parents are from Cuba.

Quantifiers

Point	Rule	Example	English
mucho	a lot of; agrees with the noun	mucha agua / muchos libros	a lot of water / a lot of books
poco	little, few: not enough	Tengo poco tiempo.	I have little time.
un poco de	a little: there is some	¿Quieres un poco de agua?	Would you like a little water?
A2todo	the whole or every one	Trabajo todos los días.	I work every day.
After a verb	mucho and poco never change	Mi hijo come mucho.	My son eats a lot.
bastante	enough, quite a lot; plural -s	Hay bastantes sillas.	There are enough chairs.
A2demasiado	more than is good	Hay demasiado ruido.	There's too much noise.
B1cada	never changes; singular noun	Voy al gimnasio cada semana.	I go to the gym every week.
B2Solo and incluso	solo limits; incluso adds the least expected	Incluso él aceptó la propuesta.	Even he accepted the proposal.
C1Degree	de lo más before an adjective equals muy	Fue una tarde de lo más agradable.	It was a really pleasant afternoon.
C2Emphatic quantifiers	muy, todo and todo un before a noun	Mi abuelo es todo un señor.	My grandfather is every inch a gentleman.
A2Trap	otro never takes un	Quiero otro café.	I want another coffee.
Trap	gente is feminine singular	Hay mucha gente.	There are a lot of people.

Noun Complements: of-Phrases, Apposition and Ellipsis

Point	Rule	Example	English
Omitted noun	article + de + complement: stands in for a known noun	Mi bolso es viejo, pero el de Marta es nuevo.	My bag is old, but Marta's is new.
Possessive	three readings; with de and a pronoun, only the theme	Encontré fotos de ti en el sobre.	I found photos of you in the envelope.
Several complements	the material complement comes before the purpose complement	Mi hermana vende mesas de madera para niños.	My sister sells wooden tables for children.
Between commas	the complement adds a detail and does not identify the noun	Mi abuelo, de pelo blanco, vive en Cuenca.	My grandfather, with white hair, lives in Cuenca.
Participle	passive reading, like a relative clause	Los candidatos elegidos reciben un diploma.	The selected candidates receive a diploma.
Relational adjective	stands right next to the noun and cannot be graded	Trabajo en una fábrica textil.	I work in a textile factory.
C1Omitted noun	the subject complement of ser names the missing noun	El de camarero es un trabajo duro.	The waiter's job is a hard one.
C1Action noun	two readings: the complement does the action or receives it	La crítica de Luis sorprendió a todos.	Luis's criticism surprised everyone.
C1un + noun + de + noun	the first noun gives the quality of the second	Mi vecina es un encanto de persona.	My neighbour is a gem of a person.
C2un + noun + de + noun	with a strong evaluation, it is the same as an adjective on the second noun	Me regalaron un horror de lámpara.	They gave me a horror of a lamp.
C1Trap	the noun keeps its preposition before que	El temor de que te vayas me quita el sueño.	The fear that you will leave keeps me awake.
C1Trap	the classifying adjective comes before the adjective of origin	Trabaja en la industria textil española.	She works in the Spanish textile industry.

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives: Agreement and Position

Point	Rule	Example	English
Ending in -o	four forms: -o / -a / -os / -as	un libro blanco / unas casas blancas	a white book / some white houses
Ending in -e or a consonant	one form for both genders	un examen fácil / una pregunta fácil	an easy exam / an easy question
Nationality	a consonant ending adds -a for the feminine	un chico español / una chica española	a Spanish boy / a Spanish girl
Plural	-s after a vowel, -es after a consonant	verde → verdes / azul → azules
Position	after the noun as a rule	un vestido rojo	a red dress
Mixed group	masculine and feminine nouns together take the masculine plural	Juan y Ana son simpáticos.	Juan and Ana are nice.
A2-or	adds -a for the feminine	una mujer trabajadora	a hard-working woman
B1buen / mal	bueno and malo drop -o before a masculine singular noun	un buen libro / un mal día	a good book / a bad day
B1gran	grande becomes gran before any singular noun and means great	una gran idea / un gran país	a great idea / a great country
B2Relational adjective	no degree, always after the noun	unos cuidados maternos	maternal care
C1Colour with a noun	does not change for gender or number	dos trajes azul marino	two navy-blue suits
C2Adjective in -í	the plural is -íes	carmesí → carmesíes	crimson
Trap	the noun's gender decides, even when it ends in -a	el mapa nuevo	the new map

Comparatives and Superlatives

Point	Rule	Example	English
más + adjective + que	more … than	El avión es más rápido que el tren.	The plane is faster than the train.
menos + adjective + que	less … than	La fruta es menos cara que la carne.	Fruit is less expensive than meat.
tan + adjective + como	as … as	Mi casa es tan grande como la tuya.	My house is as big as yours.
mejor / peor	mejor and peor compare bueno and malo	Este café es mejor que ese.	This coffee is better than that one.
mayor / menor	older and younger, for people	Mi hermano es mayor que yo.	My brother is older than me.
B1Superlative	el / la / los / las + más + adjective + de + group	Es la más alta de la clase.	She's the tallest in the class.
B1-ísimo	very with more force: drop the last vowel and add -ísimo	La comida está buenísima.	The food is really good.
B1más de	más de and menos de before a number	Hay más de cien personas.	There are more than a hundred people.
tanto / tanta / tantos / tantas + noun + como	as much or as many: it agrees with the noun	No tengo tantos libros como tú.	I don't have as many books as you.
verb + tanto como	tanto after a verb never changes	Trabajas tanto como yo.	You work as much as I do.
B1igual de + adjective + que	just as	Es igual de alto que su padre.	He's just as tall as his father.
B2superior a / inferior a	Latin comparatives: the second term takes a	Este modelo es superior a ese.	This model is superior to that one.
C1más / menos + de lo que	indefinite amount: the second term has a verb	Cuesta más de lo que esperaba.	It costs more than I expected.
C2-érrimo	learned superlative of some adjectives	Es un autor celebérrimo.	He is an extremely famous author.
Trap	after que and como, the subject pronoun	Eres más alto que yo.	You are taller than me.

Adverbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
bien / mal	the adverbs of bueno and malo	Hablas bien español.	You speak Spanish well.
muy	before an adjective or an adverb	Es muy simpática.	She's very nice.
mucho	after a verb; as an adverb it never changes	Trabajo mucho.	I work a lot.
Place	aquí / ahí / allí: here, there, over there	El libro está aquí.	The book is here.
acá / allá	very frequent in Latin America, above all in Mexico and the Southern Cone, beside aquí and allí	Vivo acá.	I live here.
Time	hoy / mañana / ahora / después	Mañana tengo clase.	Tomorrow I have class.
Frequency	siempre / normalmente / todos los días / a veces	Siempre desayuno en casa.	I always have breakfast at home.
A2nunca	before the verb, or after it with no in front	Nunca bebo café. / No bebo café nunca.	I never drink coffee. / I never drink coffee.
también / tampoco	también agrees with a positive, tampoco with a negative	No tengo hambre. — Yo tampoco.	I'm not hungry. — Me neither.
A2-mente	feminine adjective + -mente	lenta → lentamente / fácil → fácilmente
A2ya / todavía	ya: already; todavía: still; todavía no: not yet	Todavía vivo con mis padres.	I still live with my parents.
B2Evaluation	an adverb in -mente stands apart, between commas, and judges the whole event	Afortunadamente, nadie salió herido.	Fortunately, nobody was hurt.
B2probablemente	expresses doubt; allows the imperfect or past perfect subjunctive	Probablemente no hubiera venido sin ti.	I probably wouldn't have come without you.
C1técnicamente	sets the point of view of what follows	Técnicamente, el contrato ya está firmado.	Technically, the contract is already signed.
C2no + adverb	the negation can fall on the adverb alone	No necesariamente tiene que ser el lunes.	It doesn't necessarily have to be Monday.
A2Trap	the adjective keeps its written accent before -mente	rápida → rápidamente
B2Trap	muy does not go with adverbs of definite frequency	Riego las plantas diariamente.	I water the plants daily.

Pronouns

Subject Pronouns

Point	Rule	Example	English
Singular	yo / tú / él / ella / usted	¿Tú eres Pablo?	Are you Pablo?
Plural	nosotros / nosotras / ellos / ellas / ustedes	Ellos son mis padres.	They're my parents.
Plural “you”	ustedes for any group: friends or strangers	¿Ustedes son hermanos?	Are you brothers?
Plural “you”	vosotros / vosotras for friends and family, ustedes for strangers	¿Vosotros sois hermanos?	Are you brothers?
A1Usted	formal “you”: it takes the verb form of él	¿Usted habla inglés?	Do you speak English?
A1No pronoun	the verb ending names the person, so the pronoun drops	Vivo en Lima.	I live in Lima.
A1Contrast	the pronoun stays to set two people apart	Yo trabajo y tú estudias.	I work and you study.
A1Mixed group	men and women together take nosotros or ellos	¿Ana y Pedro? Ellos también son de Chile.	Ana and Pedro? They're from Chile too.
B2Subjunctive	yo and él share a form: the pronoun makes clear who acts	Dudo que él lo haga.	I doubt that he'll do it.
C1Ello	neuter pronoun: it picks up an idea, not a noun	Llegó tarde y ello me molestó.	He arrived late, and that annoyed me.
C2Emphasis	the pronoun strengthens a protest, a command or solo	¡Si yo no le he hecho nada!	But I haven't done anything to him!
A2Trap	“it” as a subject has no pronoun: the verb stands alone	Llueve.	It's raining.

Indirect Object Pronouns

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	me / te / le / nos / les	Te mando un mensaje.	I'll send you a message.
Form	os for vosotros	Os traigo un regalo.	I'm bringing you a present.
Meaning	the person who receives something: to whom, for whom	Le compro flores a mi madre.	I'm buying my mother flowers.
No gender	le serves a man, a woman and usted	Le escribo a Ana.	I'm writing to Ana.
Doubling	le or les stays beside a + person	Les escribo a mis padres.	I write to my parents.
Clarity	a él / a ella / a usted make le clear	Le escribo a ella, no a él.	I'm writing to her, not to him.
Position	like the direct object: before the conjugated verb, or attached	Voy a escribirle = Le voy a escribir	I'm going to write to him.
B2Intransitive verbs	some verbs with no direct object take le: telefonear	Ayer le telefoneé.	I phoned him yesterday.
C1Absence	the pronoun is dropped when the person cannot be specified	Ese asunto interesa muchísimo.	That matter is of great interest.
C2Ethical dative	me shows the speaker's interest; the speaker receives nothing	El niño no me duerme bien.	The boy isn't sleeping well.
Trap	preguntar takes an indirect object: le	Le pregunto a Juan.	I'm asking Juan.

Two Pronouns Together: se lo

Point	Rule	Example	English
B1Order	indirect object + direct object	¿El dinero? Te lo doy mañana.	The money? I'll give it to you tomorrow.
se	le / les → se before lo / la / los / las	¿Las llaves? Se las doy a Pedro.	The keys? I'm giving them to Pedro.
B1os	os comes first too: os lo, os las	¿Las fotos? Os las mando hoy.	The photos? I'll send them to you today.
Clarity	a él / a ella / a ellos show who se is	Se lo digo a ella.	I'll tell her.
B1Position	both before a conjugated verb, side by side	No me lo dice.	He doesn't tell me.
B1Position	both attached to an infinitive or a gerund, or both before the phrase	Voy a dártelo = Te lo voy a dar	I'm going to give it to you.
B1Command	both attached to an affirmative command	Dámelo.	Give it to me.
B1Accent	the verb keeps its stress, so it takes a written accent	dártelo / dándoselo	to give it to you / giving it to him
B2Full order	se + second person + first person + third person	Se me perdió la llave.	I lost the key.
C2Limits	the indirect object becomes a plus a stressed pronoun	Me entregaron a él.	They handed me over to him.
Trap	le never stands before lo: it is always se lo	Se lo explico.	I'll explain it to him.

Uses of se: Involuntary, Aspectual and Middle

Point	Rule	Example	English
Middle voice	se + verb: the event happens to the subject, with no agent	Se abrió la ventana.	The window opened.
Unintended event	the person affected takes the dative: me / te / le / nos / les	Se nos acabó el tiempo.	We ran out of time.
Agreement	the verb agrees with the thing, not with the person	Se me perdieron las llaves.	I lost my keys.
ir / irse	irse marks leaving a place; ir, the destination	Me voy de aquí. / Voy a casa de Ana.	I'm leaving here. / I'm going to Ana's house.
C1Pronominal verbs	the verb takes se and a fixed preposition	Me acuerdo de tu casa.	I remember your house.
C1Aspectual se	the delimited object is used up entirely	Felipe se comió un pollo él solo.	Felipe ate a whole chicken all by himself.
C1Possession	the dative names the owner; the body part takes an article	Se le cerraban los ojos.	His eyes were closing.
C2Possessive dative	an article or, for emphasis, a possessive; with body parts, only an article	Se hace la cama. ≠ Se hace su cama.	He makes the bed. ≠ He makes his bed.
Trap	se comes first among the unstressed pronouns	Se me perdió el pasaporte.	I lost my passport.
C1Trap	the preposition stays before que	Me di cuenta de que llegaba tarde.	I realised I was late.

Leísmo, Laísmo and Loísmo: le, la, lo

Point	Rule	Example	English
Norm	lo and la: direct object; le: indirect object	A Luisa la vimos y le dimos las gracias.	We saw Luisa and thanked her.
Leísmo with a person	le instead of lo with a man is accepted	A Luis le vimos ayer.	We saw Luis yesterday.
Spain	leísmo with a male person is common	A mi tío le veo los domingos.	I see my uncle on Sundays.
Latin America	lo is the usual form with a man	A mi tío lo veo los domingos.	I see my uncle on Sundays.
Verbs with le	telefonear and corresponder take only le	Le telefoneé a mi madre.	I phoned my mother.
C1Same verb	with a blow as direct object, the person takes le	Su padre le pegó una bofetada.	His father slapped him.
C2Le for les	les with a plural indirect object	No les tiene miedo a los fantasmas.	He's not afraid of ghosts.
C1Trap	laísmo and loísmo: the indirect object is le	A María le dije que viniera.	I told María to come.
C1Trap	lo or la for a thing, not le	El libro que me dejaste lo leí.	I read the book you lent me.

Ser, estar, hay, gustar

Ser and Estar

Point	Rule	Example	English
First phrases	ser in the first phrases: soy / eres / es / son	Soy Ana. / ¿Eres Pablo? / Son las dos.	I'm Ana. / Are you Pablo? / It's two o'clock.
First phrases	vosotros: sois	¿Vosotros sois hermanos?	Are you brothers?
A1Form	ser: soy / eres / es / somos / son	Soy de México.	I'm from Mexico.
A1Form	estar: estoy / estás / está / estamos / están	Estoy en casa.	I'm at home.
A1Form	vosotros: sois / estáis	¿Sois hermanos?	Are you brothers?
A1Identity	ser: name, job, nationality, origin	Mi madre es médica.	My mother is a doctor.
A1Description	ser: what someone or something is like	La casa es grande.	The house is big.
A1Time and date	ser: the hour, the day, the date	Son las tres.	It's three o'clock.
A1Place	estar: where someone or something is	El banco está en la plaza.	The bank is in the square.
A1State	estar: how someone feels or how something is now	Estoy cansada.	I'm tired.
A2Result	estar + past participle: the result of a change	La tienda está cerrada.	The shop is closed.
A1Material	ser + de: what it is made of	La mesa es de madera.	The table is made of wood.
A2Owner	ser + de: whose it is	El libro es de Luis.	The book is Luis's.
B2Event	ser for the place of an appointment or a concert	La cita es en el cine Callao.	The meeting is at the Callao cinema.
C1Definition	ser joins two infinitives, with no adjective	Querer es poder.	To want is to be able.
C1Estar para and por	estar + para + infinitive is about to happen; estar + por + infinitive is still to be done	El tren está para salir. / La cena está por preparar.	The train is about to leave. / Dinner is still to be prepared.
C1Estar por and que	estar + por + noun means being in favour; estar + que + clause intensifies	Estoy por tu propuesta. / El café está que arde.	I'm in favour of your proposal. / The coffee is boiling hot.
C2Existence and set phrases	ser says that something exists and forms set phrases	Pienso, luego soy.	I think, therefore I am.
C2Extreme appraisal	estar + para + infinitive rates something to the extreme	Ese pastel está para chuparse los dedos.	That cake is finger-licking good.
A1Trap	a place that never moves still takes estar	Madrid está en España.	Madrid is in Spain.

Ser or Estar with Adjectives

Point	Rule	Example	English
ser	what someone or something is like	Mi jefe es simpático.	My boss is nice.
A2estar	a state now, or the result of a change	La puerta está abierta.	The door is open.
A2Always estar	contento / lleno / roto and other states	El vaso está roto.	The glass is broken.
B1parecer	parecer + adjective: the adjective agrees with the subject	Los niños parecen cansados.	The children look tired.
A2Opinion	es + adjective + infinitive	Es importante dormir bien.	It's important to sleep well.
B2Adjectives with two meanings	the verb changes the meaning: listo / verde / aburrido	Ana es lista. / Ana está lista.	Ana is clever. / Ana is ready.
B2Parecer with an infinitive	parecer + infinitive keeps ser and estar	Los niños parecen estar cansados.	The children seem to be tired.
C1Behaviour	ser for a habit, estar for one occasion	Mi vecina es muy amable. / Ayer estuviste muy amable.	My neighbour is very kind. / Yesterday you were very kind.
C1Colloquial estar	estar gives an immediate impression of something	La película está interesante.	The film is interesting.
C2Character with estar	estar presents a character trait as today's behaviour	Hoy estás muy trabajador.	You're very hard-working today.
Trap	bien and mal are adverbs: they take estar	Todo está bien.	Everything is fine.
A2Trap	muerto takes estar: death is a state	El pez está muerto.	The fish is dead.

Verbs of Change: ponerse, quedarse, hacerse, volverse

Point	Rule	Example	English
ponerse	a passing change of state or mood	Ana se puso nerviosa.	Ana got nervous.
quedarse	the result of a change, which lasts	Mi abuelo se quedó sordo.	My grandfather went deaf.
hacerse	a change the subject brings about, or that places them in a group	Elena se hizo budista.	Elena became a Buddhist.
volverse	a deep change of character	La gente se volvió desconfiada.	People became distrustful.
convertirse en	a complete transformation	La rana se convirtió en príncipe.	The frog turned into a prince.
llegar a ser	the end of a long process	Con esfuerzo, llegó a ser directora.	With effort, she became a director.
C1Pseudo-copulative verbs	mantenerse / mostrarse / resultar / quedar / verse link the subject to a complement	El ciclista resultó herido. / Acabó siendo profesora.	The cyclist ended up injured. / She ended up being a teacher.
C1With a noun	hacerse and volverse take a noun	Se hizo médico.	He became a doctor.
C2Fixed expressions	hacerse tarde, quedarse frío, ponerse como una sopa	Se me ha hecho tarde.	It's got late.
Trap	lo does not replace the complement: use así	Yo me volví así también.	I became like that too.
Trap	convertirse takes en before a noun	Se convirtió en médico.	He became a doctor.

The present

Present Tense: Regular Verbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablo / hablas / habla / hablamos / hablan	Hablo español.	I speak Spanish.
Form	comer: como / comes / come / comemos / comen	¿Qué comes?	What do you eat?
Form	vivir: vivo / vives / vive / vivimos / viven	Mis padres viven en Lima.	My parents live in Lima.
Form	vosotros: habláis / coméis / vivís	¿Dónde vivís?	Where do you live?
Person	the ending names the person; the pronoun usually drops	Vivo en Quito.	I live in Quito.
Use	what happens now, habits and facts	Todos los días camino al trabajo.	I walk to work every day.
B2Use	gives instructions and tells a recent past event as current	Giras a la derecha y ves la farmacia. / Ayer llego a casa y no encuentro las llaves.	You turn right and you see the pharmacy. / Yesterday I get home and I can't find my keys.
C1Use	tells a fact from history as current	En 1605 Cervantes publica la primera parte del Quijote.	In 1605, Cervantes publishes the first part of Don Quixote.
C2Use	expresses an order, a refusal or a threat, and describes images in captions	Una palabra más y te echo. / La alcaldesa corta la cinta en la inauguración del puente.	One more word and I'll throw you out. / The mayor cuts the ribbon at the opening of the bridge.
Negative	no goes before the verb	No como carne.	I don't eat meat.
Question	the same words, between ¿ and ?, with a rising voice	¿Hablas inglés?	Do you speak English?
Trap	usted takes the forms of él and ella	¿Habla usted inglés?	Do you speak English?
Trap	-er and -ir differ with nosotros	Comemos aquí. / Vivimos aquí.	We eat here. / We live here.

The past

Tense Map

Tense	Meaning	Example	English
Present	habits, facts, now	Siempre desayuno café.	I always have coffee for breakfast.
Present continuous	an action going on now	Estoy estudiando.	I'm studying.
Present perfect	experience, a time up to now	¿Has estado en Chile?	Have you been to Chile?
Preterite	a finished event	Ayer fui al cine.	I went to the cinema yesterday.
Imperfect	description, habits	De niño vivía en Lima.	As a child I lived in Lima.
B1Estaba with the gerund	an action going on at a past moment	Estaba cocinando cuando llamaste.	I was cooking when you called.
B1Past perfect	before another past action	El tren ya había salido.	The train had already left.
C2Past anterior	immediately before another past action, in literary style	Apenas hubo amanecido, salieron al campo.	As soon as dawn broke, they went out to the fields.
Future with ir a	plans, the near future	Voy a viajar en julio.	I'm going to travel in July.
Present	a fixed plan with a time word	Mañana trabajo temprano.	I'm working early tomorrow.
B1Future	predictions, promises	Mañana lloverá.	It will rain tomorrow.
B1Conditional	polite wishes, advice	Me gustaría un café.	I'd like a coffee.
B2Future perfect	before a future moment; a guess about the past	Para el lunes ya habré terminado.	I will have finished by Monday.
B2Conditional perfect	the unreal result in the past	Con más tiempo, habría visitado el museo.	With more time, I would have visited the museum.
B2Imperfect subjunctive	wishes in the past; unreal conditions in the present	Si tuviera tiempo, viajaría más.	If I had time, I would travel more.
B2Past perfect subjunctive	unreal conditions in the past	Si hubiera salido antes, habría llegado.	If I had left earlier, I would have arrived.

Preterite: comí

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablé / hablaste / habló / hablamos / hablaron	Ayer trabajé mucho.	I worked a lot yesterday.
Form	comer / vivir: comí / comiste / comió / comimos / comieron	Anoche comimos pizza.	We had pizza last night.
Form	vosotros: hablasteis / comisteis / vivisteis	¿Visteis el partido?	Did you see the match?
Form	ser and ir share one set of forms: fui / fue / fueron	El sábado fuimos al cine.	On Saturday we went to the cinema.
Form	a new stem, with no accent: tener → tuve, hacer → hice	Ayer tuve un examen.	I had an exam yesterday.
B1Form	spelling changes in yo: buscar → busqué, llegar → llegué, empezar → empecé	El lunes empecé a trabajar.	On Monday I started work.
B1Form	stem-changing -ir verbs change in él and ellos: pedir → pidió, dormir → durmió	El niño durmió toda la noche.	The child slept all night.
Use	an action finished at a stated past time	Ana nació en 2001.	Ana was born in 2001.
Use	a chain of events, one after another	Llegué, cené y me acosté.	I got home, had dinner and went to bed.
B1Use	a whole period that is over, with its length	Viví tres años en Quito.	I lived in Quito for three years.
C2Use	an imminent or certain event, said as if already done	Mira, aterriza el vuelo de mis tíos: ¡ya llegaron!	Look, my aunt and uncle's flight is landing: they've arrived!
Trap	the accent marks the past: hablo ≠ habló	Ayer Ana habló conmigo.	Ana talked to me yesterday.
Trap	fui / fue / vi / dio have no written accent	Te vi ayer.	I saw you yesterday.

Imperfect: comía

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaba / hablabas / hablaba / hablábamos / hablaban	Antes trabajaba en un banco.	I used to work in a bank.
Form	comer / vivir: comía / comías / comía / comíamos / comían	De niña vivía en el campo.	As a child I lived in the countryside.
Form	vosotros: hablabais / comíais / vivíais	¿Dónde vivíais antes?	Where did you live before?
Form	irregular: ser → era, ir → iba, ver → veía	La casa era pequeña.	The house was small.
Use	a description of people, things, places and time	Mi abuelo tenía una casa grande.	My grandfather had a big house.
Use	a habit in the past	Todos los días iba al colegio en bus.	I went to school by bus every day.
B1Use	an action in progress when something else happened	Cuando llegué, llovía.	When I arrived, it was raining.
B1Use	a polite request with quería	Quería un café, por favor.	I'd like a coffee, please.
B2Use	a plan that no longer holds; the frame of a game or a dream	Pensaba ir al cine, pero estoy cansada. / Anoche soñé que volaba.	I was thinking of going to the cinema, but I'm tired. / Last night I dreamed I was flying.
C1Use	surprise, apology and reproach in conversation	¡Mira quién estaba aquí! / ¡Yo qué sabía!	Look who's here! / How was I to know!
C1Use	a plan or a rumour told at a distance	Pedro se casaba el sábado, ¿no?	Pedro is getting married on Saturday, isn't he?
C2Use	disapproval and the ironic comment	Y ahora se va la luz: ¡lo que faltaba! / Toda la mañana buscándolas y mira dónde estaban.	And now the power goes out: that's all we needed! / I spent all morning looking for them, and look where they were.
C2Use	today's news; in informal speech, the imperfect in place of the conditional	Hoy un camión volcaba en la autopista. / Si pudiera, me iba hoy mismo.	A lorry overturned on the motorway today. / If I could, I'd leave today.
Form	hay → había, singular for every number	Había muchos niños.	There were a lot of children.
Trap	yo and él share one form: yo trabajaba, él trabajaba	Ella cocinaba y yo limpiaba.	She did the cooking and I did the cleaning.
Trap	every ía form and hablábamos carry an accent	Siempre hablábamos en inglés.	We always spoke English.

Past Perfect: había comido

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	había / habías / había / habíamos / habían + past participle	Ya habíamos cenado.	We had already had dinner.
Form	vosotros: habíais + past participle	¿Habíais estado antes en Madrid?	Had you been to Madrid before?
Form	the participles of the present perfect: hecho, dicho, roto	¿Quién había roto la ventana?	Who had broken the window?
C2Form	hube / hubiste / hubo + past participle: the past anterior, literary	En cuanto hubo anochecido, encendieron las luces.	As soon as night had fallen, they switched on the lights.
Use	an action before another past action	Cuando llegué, el tren ya había salido.	When I arrived, the train had already left.
Use	experience up to a past moment, with nunca	Nunca había comido ceviche antes.	I had never eaten ceviche before.
Use	the cause of a past situation	Estaba cansada porque había trabajado mucho.	She was tired because she had worked a lot.
Use	what someone said about an earlier action	Me dijo que había perdido el tren.	She told me she had missed the train.
B2Use	a thought or plan that did not come true	Había pensado ir al cine, pero me quedé en casa.	I had thought of going to the cinema, but I stayed at home.
C1Use	a near miss: the action was about to happen	Esa tarde había estado a punto de renunciar.	That afternoon he had been about to resign.
C2Use	politeness: a question about a recent request	Perdone, señora, ¿me había llamado?	Excuse me, madam, did you call me?
Trap	pronouns and no go before había	Ya lo había leído.	I had already read it.

Irregular Verbs Table

Infinitive	Present, yo	Preterite	Participle
ser	soy	fui	sido
ir	voy	fui	ido
estar	estoy	estuve	estado
tener	tengo	tuve	tenido
hacer	hago	hice	hecho
ver	veo	vi	visto
B1decir	digo	dije	dicho
B1poner	pongo	puse	puesto
B1poder	puedo	pude	podido
B1querer	quiero	quise	querido
B1pedir	pido	pedí / pidió	pedido
B1conducir	conduzco	conduje	conducido
B2tuvieron → tuviera	—	—	—
C2imprimir	imprimo	imprimí	imprimido / impreso
C2fueron → fuere	—	—	—

Future and conditional

Simple Future: comeré

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaré / hablarás / hablará / hablaremos / hablarán	Mañana te llamaré.	I'll call you tomorrow.
Form	vosotros: hablaréis / comeréis / viviréis	¿Vendréis a la boda?	Will you come to the wedding?
Irregular stems	tendré / pondré / saldré / vendré / podré	No podré ir.	I won't be able to go.
Irregular stems	haré / diré / querré / sabré / habrá	Lo haré mañana.	I'll do it tomorrow.
Use	a prediction	Mañana lloverá en el norte.	It will rain in the north tomorrow.
Use	a promise	No se lo diré a nadie.	I won't tell anyone.
Use	a guess about now	¿Dónde está Ana? Estará en casa.	Where's Ana? She's probably at home.
B2Use	a vague future, with no commitment: ya + future	Ya veremos qué hacemos.	We'll see what we do.
C1Use	an objection with pero and an order	Será famoso, pero conmigo fue antipático. / Primero harás la tarea.	He may be famous, but he was unpleasant with me. / First you will do your homework.
C2Use	surprise or disapproval, firm certainty, a warning	¡Serás mentiroso! / ¡Tú verás!	You liar! / It's up to you!
Condition	si with the present, then the future	Si llueve, nos quedaremos en casa.	If it rains, we'll stay at home.
Trap	habrá stays singular	Mañana habrá mucha gente.	There will be a lot of people tomorrow.
Trap	never the future after si in a condition	Si tengo tiempo, iré.	If I have time, I'll go.

Conditional: comería

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaría / hablarías / hablaríamos / hablarían	Viviría en la playa.	I'd live by the beach.
Form	vosotros: hablaríais / comeríais / viviríais	¿Vendríais conmigo?	Would you come with me?
Irregular stems	the stems of the future: tendría / podría / haría / diría	Haría cualquier cosa por ti.	I'd do anything for you.
Use	a polite request	¿Podría cerrar la ventana?	Could you close the window?
Use	a wish	Me gustaría ir a Cuba.	I'd like to go to Cuba.
Use	advice: deberías	Deberías descansar.	You should rest.
B2Use	a supposition about the past; an event after a past moment	Cuando llegó, serían las nueve. / Dijo que vendría el lunes.	When he arrived, it must have been about nine o'clock. / He said he would come on Monday.
B2Use	the result of an unreal condition; a wish without a condition	Si tuviera tiempo, viajaría. / Me tomaría un café.	If I had time, I would travel. / I'd have a coffee.
C1Use	an objection about the past, with pero	Aquel actor sería famoso, pero fue antipático.	That actor may have been famous, but he was unpleasant.
C2Use	an unconfirmed piece of news; a fear about the past	El ministro dejaría el cargo. / ¿No creerías que fue a propósito?	The minister is reported to be stepping down. / Wouldn't you think it was on purpose?
Trap	every form carries í	Comería algo.	I'd eat something.
Trap	gustar keeps its pattern: me gustaría	Nos gustaría verte.	We'd like to see you.

Future Perfect: habré comido

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	habré / habrás / habrá / habremos / habrán + past participle	Para las diez ya habremos cenado.	By ten o'clock we will have had dinner.
Form	vosotros: habréis + past participle	¿Habréis llegado para las ocho?	Will you have arrived by eight?
Form	irregular participles do not change: hecho, dicho, visto	Esta noche ya habré hecho la maleta.	I will have packed my suitcase by tonight.
Use	an action finished before a future moment	Antes de las ocho ya habremos salido.	We will have left before eight.
Use	a guess about a past event	Habrá tenido problemas.	He must have had problems.
C1Use	an objection about the past, with pero	Mi vecino habrá viajado mucho, pero no habla inglés.	My neighbour may well have travelled a lot, but he doesn't speak English.
C1Use	an uneasy doubt, with no	¿No nos habremos equivocado de calle?	Could we have taken the wrong street?
C2Use	surprise, reproach or fear, in questions	¿No habrás dicho eso delante de todos?	You didn't say that in front of everyone, did you?
C2Use	an emphatic statement, in exclamations	¡Cuántas veces te lo habré dicho!	How many times have I told you!
With cuando	the present or perfect subjunctive after cuando	Cuando hayamos llegado, ya se habrá ido.	By the time we arrive, he will already have left.
Trap	the participle does not change for gender or number	Ellas habrán llegado ya.	They will have arrived by now.
Trap	cuando takes no future	Cuando llegues, ya habré salido.	By the time you arrive, I will have left.

Conditional Perfect: habría comido

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	habría / habrías / habríamos / habrían + past participle	Yo habría hecho lo mismo.	I would have done the same.
Unreal condition	si hubiera + participle, habría + participle	Si hubiera podido, habría ido.	If I had been able to, I would have gone.
Wish or advice	without the condition, says what one would have done	Yo habría llamado al médico.	I would have called the doctor.
Conjecture	supposes an event earlier than another past event	La luz estaba apagada: habrían salido.	The light was off: they must have gone out.
Reported speech	the future perfect of direct speech, reported from the past	Dijo que para el viernes habría terminado.	He said that he would have finished by Friday.
Reproach	habrías podido or deberías with a compound infinitive	Habrías podido avisarme.	You could have warned me.
C1Objection, contrast	grants what is supposed and contradicts it, or contrasts two people	Habría estudiado mucho, pero no se notó. / A ti te habría dado igual, pero a mí no.	He may have studied a lot, but it didn't show. / It might have made no difference to you, but it did to me.
C2Fear, warning	warns of what could have happened	¡Qué susto! Te habrías roto una pierna.	What a fright! You could have broken a leg.
C2Press	presents an earlier event as unconfirmed	El incendio se habría iniciado de madrugada.	The fire is said to have started in the early hours.
C2Sequence	habrá terminado → habría terminado / ha terminado → había terminado	Dice que ha terminado. / Dijo que había terminado.	He says he has finished. / He said he had finished.
Trap	si takes hubiera, not habría	Si hubiera sabido, habría venido.	If I had known, I would have come.
Trap	the pronoun goes before habría	Yo lo habría comprado.	I would have bought it.

Imperative and verb phrases

Affirmative Imperative

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	tú: the él form of the present	Habla más despacio, por favor.	Speak more slowly, please.
Form	usted: -ar verbs end in e, -er and -ir verbs in a	Pase, por favor.	Come in, please.
Form	ustedes: the usted form with n	Abran los libros.	Open your books.
Form	vosotros: the r of the infinitive becomes d	Abrid los libros.	Open your books.
Irregular verbs	tú: di / haz / pon / sal / ten / ven / ve / sé	Ven aquí.	Come here.
B1Irregular verbs	usted: esté / sepa, from estar and saber	Esté tranquilo, señor.	Don't worry, sir.
Pronouns	object and reflexive pronouns join the end of the verb	Cómpralo. / Siéntate.	Buy it. / Sit down.
Use	instructions, directions and requests	Sigue por esta calle y gira a la derecha.	Go along this street and turn right.
Use	invitations and offers	Pasa y siéntate.	Come in and sit down.
Fixed forms	mira / oye call for attention; perdona / perdone say sorry	Oye, ¿tienes un lápiz?	Hey, have you got a pencil?
B2Fixed forms	anda encourages, vaya expresses surprise and a repeated order urges	Anda, no te preocupes tanto.	Come on, don't worry so much.
B2Use	an adverb strengthens the order; a polite formula softens it	Sal inmediatamente. / Sal, si no te importa.	Leave immediately. / Leave, if you don't mind.
C1Fixed forms	mira que stresses a quality; mira qué bien is ironic	Mira que eres terco.	You really are stubborn.
C2Fixed forms	toma asserts firmly or mockingly; pero oye reproaches	¡Toma! Eso te pasa por presumido.	Take that! That's what you get for showing off.
Trap	the tú imperative has no final s: hablas → habla	Escucha, por favor.	Listen, please.

Can, Must, Should: poder, saber, deber, tener que, hay que

Point	Rule	Example	English
Permission	¿Puedo + infinitive: asking if something is allowed	¿Puedo abrir la ventana?	Can I open the window?
Requests	¿Puedes + infinitive: asking someone to do something	¿Puedes repetir, por favor?	Can you repeat that, please?
Skills	saber + infinitive: something someone has learned to do	Sé nadar.	I can swim.
Ability now	poder: whether someone is able to do something now	Hoy no puedo salir.	I can't go out today.
Obligation	tener que + infinitive: what one person needs to do	Tengo que trabajar el sábado.	I have to work on Saturday.
Obligation	hay que + infinitive: what everyone needs to do, with no subject	Hay que pagar antes de entrar.	You have to pay before going in.
Pronouns	before the conjugated verb, or at the end of the infinitive	Lo tengo que hacer. / Tengo que hacerlo.	I have to do it. / I have to do it.
B1Duty	deber + infinitive: what is right or required	Debes decir la verdad.	You must tell the truth.
B1Advice	deberías + infinitive: a piece of advice	Deberías descansar.	You should rest.
B2Probability	deber de + infinitive: a guess, not an obligation	Debe de estar en casa.	He must be at home.
C1Approximation	venir a + infinitive: an approximate amount or meaning	Viene a costar unos veinte dólares.	It comes to about twenty dollars.
C2Formal obligation	haber de + infinitive: firm obligation or intention, in formal style	Hemos de decidir hoy.	We must decide today.
Trap	tener takes que before the infinitive	Tengo que irme.	I have to go.
B1Trap	no tener que: not necessary; no deber: mustn't, as a duty or advice; no poder: not allowed	No tienes que venir. / No debes mentir. / No puedes fumar aquí.	You don't have to come. / You mustn't lie. / You can't smoke here.

Verb Phrases: acabar de, volver a, soler

Form	Meaning	Example	English
acabar de + infinitive	something that has just happened	Acabo de llegar.	I've just arrived.
empezar a + infinitive	the start of an action	Empiezo a trabajar a las ocho.	I start work at eight.
volver a + infinitive	an action again	Vuelve a llover.	It's raining again.
B1dejar de + infinitive	the end of a habit or an action	Dejé de fumar el año pasado.	I stopped smoking last year.
B1soler + infinitive	a habit	Suelo levantarme temprano.	I usually get up early.
B1seguir + gerund	an action that goes on	Sigo viviendo en Lima.	I still live in Lima.
B1ponerse a + infinitive	a sudden start	El niño se puso a llorar.	The child started crying.
B1estar a punto de + infinitive	something about to happen	El tren está a punto de salir.	The train is about to leave.
B2llevar + duration + gerund	how long an action has lasted until now	Llevo dos años viviendo en Quito.	I've been living in Quito for two years.
C1acabar por + infinitive	an end result after doubt or resistance	Después de dudar, acabó por aceptar.	After hesitating, he ended up accepting.
C1ir + gerund	an action that moves forward little by little	El enfermo va mejorando.	The patient is gradually getting better.
C1tener + past participle	a result already achieved	Tengo preparadas las maletas.	I have the suitcases ready.
C2echar a + infinitive	a verb phrase if the infinitive can change; a set phrase if it is fixed	El niño echó a correr. / La lluvia echó a perder la fiesta.	The boy broke into a run. / The rain ruined the party.
Trap	the preposition stays: de, a	Empiezo a entender.	I'm beginning to understand.
B1Trap	seguir takes the gerund	Sigo estudiando.	I'm still studying.

The subjunctive

Subjunctive for Wishes, Doubt and Opinions

Point	Rule	Example	English
Wishes	querer / esperar / preferir / necesitar with que	Espero que estés bien.	I hope you're well.
ojalá	a hope, always with the subjunctive	Ojalá no llueva.	I hope it doesn't rain.
Feelings	me alegra / me molesta / me da miedo with que	Me alegra que estés aquí.	I'm glad you're here.
Doubt	no creo que / no pienso que / dudo que	No creo que venga.	I don't think she'll come.
Judgements	es importante que / es mejor que / es normal que	Es importante que duermas bien.	It's important that you sleep well.
One subject	the infinitive, with no que	Quiero descansar.	I want to rest.
Belief	creo que and pienso que take the indicative	Creo que viene.	I think she's coming.
B2Simple sentence	que with the subjunctive repeats an order	¿Qué has dicho? — Que te vayas.	What did you say? — I said go away.
B2Past	after a main verb in the past, influence keeps the subjunctive	Aconsejó que descansara.	She advised me to rest.
B2Subject clause	resultar takes the indicative; faltar and bastar, the subjunctive	Resulta que encontramos el dinero. / Falta que terminemos esto.	It turns out that we found the money. / We still have to finish this.
C1Negation	a negated verb changes meaning with the mood	No niega que es él. / No niega que sea él.	He doesn't deny that it's him. / He doesn't deny that it might be him.
C1Infinitive	creer, decir and pedir allow an infinitive or a conjugated verb	Dijo vivir en Zaragoza / Dijo que vivía en Zaragoza	He said he lived in Zaragoza.
C2Change of meaning	entender, ver and decidir change meaning with the mood	Decidió que Luis tenía razón. / Decidió que Luis se quedara.	She decided that Luis was right. / She decided that Luis should stay.
Trap	“I want you to” is quiero que with the subjunctive	Quiero que vengas.	I want you to come.
Trap	a fact stated as true takes the indicative: es verdad que	Es verdad que es caro.	It's true that it's expensive.

Subjunctive after cuando, para que, antes de que

Point	Rule	Example	English
cuando	a future event: subjunctive	Cuando tenga dinero, viajaré.	When I have money, I'll travel.
cuando	a habit or the past: indicative	Cuando tengo tiempo, leo.	When I have time, I read.
hasta que	the same as cuando	Espera aquí hasta que vuelva.	Wait here until I come back.
después de que	a future event: subjunctive	Cenaremos después de que lleguen los niños.	We'll have dinner after the children arrive.
antes de que	always the subjunctive	Vámonos antes de que llueva.	Let's go before it rains.
para que	a purpose with another subject: subjunctive	Te lo explico para que lo entiendas.	I'll explain it so that you understand it.
para	a purpose with the same subject: infinitive	Estudio para aprender.	I study to learn.
antes de / después de	the same subject: infinitive	Me lavo las manos antes de comer.	I wash my hands before eating.
B2en cuanto / apenas	a future event: subjunctive; a past event: indicative	En cuanto llegue el paquete, te escribo. / Apenas salí, empezó a llover.	As soon as the package arrives, I'll write to you. / I had barely gone out when it started to rain.
B2antes de que / para que	after a past verb: imperfect subjunctive	Se fue antes de que llegáramos.	He left before we arrived.
C1mientras	with the subjunctive: time and condition, looking to the future	Seguiré aquí mientras me necesiten.	I'll stay here as long as they need me.
C2para que	a frustrated purpose: the result contradicts the effort	Trabajé todo el año para que ni me dieran las gracias.	I worked all year, and they didn't even thank me.
Trap	never the future after cuando	Cuando sea mayor, seré médico.	When I grow up, I'll be a doctor.
Trap	the question word cuándo takes the indicative	¿Cuándo vienes?	When are you coming?

Imperfect Subjunctive: hablara, hablase

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	preterite of ellos without -ron + ra / se	Quería que hablara. = Quería que hablase.	I wanted him to speak.
Irregular verbs	the irregular stem of the preterite stays: vinieron → viniera	Esperaba que vinieras pronto.	I hoped you would come soon.
Unreal wish	ojalá expresses an unlikely or impossible wish	Ojalá tuviera más tiempo.	I wish I had more time.
Remote possibility	quizá / tal vez present the possibility as unlikely	Tal vez fuera ella.	Maybe it was her.
Politeness	softens a wish or a request	Quisiera pedirle un favor.	I would like to ask you a favour.
Main verb in the past	a past wish, influence, feeling or doubt calls for the imperfect subjunctive	Me pidió que llamara antes.	He asked me to call beforehand.
Condition	si takes the imperfect subjunctive and the result takes the conditional	Si tuviera tiempo, iría.	If I had time, I would go.
C1Unreal comparison	como si / igual que si compare with something unreal	Habla como si lo supiera todo.	He talks as if he knew everything.
C1Other subordinate clauses	relative, time, purpose and concessive clauses that refer to the past	Esperó hasta que llegaras.	He waited until you arrived.
C2Ironic refusal	qué más quisiera refuses what looks like a wish	¡Qué más quisiera yo!	I wish!
Trap	a lo mejor takes the indicative	A lo mejor voy mañana.	Maybe I'll go tomorrow.
Trap	the nosotros form takes a written accent	Si tuviéramos tiempo, iríamos.	If we had time, we would go.

Present Perfect and Past Perfect Subjunctive: haya hablado, hubiera hablado

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	haya / hayas / hayamos / hayan + past participle	Me alegro de que hayas venido.	I'm glad you have come.
Form	hubiera / hubieras / hubiéramos / hubieran + past participle	Ojalá hubiera venido.	If only he had come.
Use	haya: a finished action in a period that reaches the present	Espero que hayas dormido bien.	I hope you have slept well.
Use	hubiera: an action before another past action, or one that did not happen	No creía que hubiera llegado.	I didn't think he had arrived.
Time	after cuando, a future action that comes before another	Cuando el jefe se haya ido, hablamos.	When the boss has gone, we'll talk.
Condition	si + hubiera + past participle	Si hubieras llegado antes, habrías visto el inicio.	If you had arrived earlier, you would have seen the beginning.
C1Form	a verb built on an irregular one keeps its participle	Dudo que lo haya descrito. / Ojalá lo hubiera devuelto.	I doubt he has described it. / If only he had returned it.
C1Use	after a negated belief, haya replaces the future perfect	No pienso que se haya quedado dormido.	I don't think he has fallen asleep.
C2Use	with a past reference, the imperfect can replace haya	No creo que haya salido anoche. / No creo que saliera anoche.	I don't think he went out last night. / I don't think he went out last night.
Trap	after a past-tense verb, hubiera and not había	Dudaba que lo hubiera hecho.	I doubted he had done it.
Trap	after cuando, haya and not habrá	Cuando haya terminado, te llamo.	When I've finished, I'll call you.

Sequence of Tenses with the Subjunctive

Point	Rule	Example	English
Main verb in the present	present subjunctive: the same time or later	Quiero que vengas mañana.	I want you to come tomorrow.
Main verb in the present	present perfect subjunctive: what happened earlier	Espero que hayas llegado bien.	I hope you arrived safely.
Main verb in a past tense	imperfect subjunctive: the same time or later	Pidió que esperáramos.	He asked us to wait.
Main verb in a past tense	past perfect subjunctive: what happened earlier	Esperaba que hubieras llegado.	I hoped you had arrived.
Reported speech	after dice the present; after dijo the imperfect	Dice que me siente. / Dijo que me sentara.	He says I should sit down. / He told me to sit down.
Adverbial clauses	after a past tense, the imperfect subjunctive	Se fue antes de que llegaras.	He left before you arrived.
C1Conditional perfect	past perfect subjunctive	Me habría gustado que hubieras venido.	I would have liked you to come.
C1Present tense and a past event	present perfect or imperfect subjunctive	No creo que haya llegado. / No creo que llegara ayer.	I don't think he has arrived. / I don't think he arrived yesterday.
C2Alternating forms	after a negation, two forms work for the same past event	No creo que Ana lo haya dicho. / No creo que Ana lo dijera.	I don't think Ana has said it. / I don't think Ana said it.
Trap	after a past tense, the imperfect subjunctive	Quería que vinieras.	I wanted you to come.
C1Trap	after habría gustado comes hubieras	Habría preferido que hubieras avisado.	I would have preferred you to let me know.

Future Subjunctive: hablare, hubiere

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	ellos preterite without -ron + re	Si procediere, se devolverá el importe.	If applicable, the amount will be refunded.
Endings	re / res / remos / ren	Donde fueres, haz lo que vieres.	When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
Compound form	hubiere + past participle	Si el plazo hubiere vencido, se rechazará la solicitud.	If the deadline has expired, the application will be rejected.
Legal language	a condition or a possible case in the law	Si hubiere una disposición contraria, esta no se aplicará.	If there is a contrary provision, it will not apply.
Literary language	what is possible in verse and in prose	Cuando la noche cayere, volveremos a la orilla.	When night falls, we will go back to the shore.
Set phrases	inherited formulas and proverbs	Venga lo que viniere, estaré contigo. / Sea como fuere, saldremos mañana.	Come what may, I'll be with you. / Be that as it may, we'll leave tomorrow.
Modern usage	the present subjunctive or indicative takes its place	Quien incumpla la norma será sancionado.	Whoever breaks the rule will be penalised.
Trap	the stem comes from the preterite: vieron → viere	Haz lo que vieres.	Do as you see.
Trap	the nosotros form takes a written accent	Si lo hiciéremos juntos, saldrá bien.	If we do it together, it will turn out well.

Prepositions

Verbs, Adjectives and Nouns with Fixed Prepositions

Point	Rule	Example	English
verb + a + infinitive	the verb takes the preposition before the infinitive	Se negó a responder.	He refused to answer.
verb + preposition + que + clause	the preposition stays; the meaning decides the mood	Cuento con que vengas.	I'm counting on you to come.
With and without a preposition	the preposition changes the meaning of the verb	Cuento un chiste. / Cuento con mi hermano.	I tell a joke. / I count on my brother.
Fixed construction	the preposition is part of the verb	Me di cuenta de mi error.	I realised my mistake.
difícil + de + infinitive	the subject receives the action of the infinitive	Este texto es difícil de leer.	This text is hard to read.
C1Two constructions	some verbs take a direct object or a prepositional object	Cuida a Ana. / Cuida de Ana.	He looks after Ana. / He takes care of Ana.
C1noun + preposition + infinitive	the noun takes de or a before the infinitive	Siento el deseo de volver.	I feel the desire to return.
C1adjective + preposition + infinitive	before an infinitive or an indirect question	Estoy deseoso de verte.	I'm eager to see you.
C2adjective + de + noun	the adjective agrees with the subject or, after de, with the noun	Luisa es corta de entendimiento. / Luisa es de entendimiento corto.	Luisa is slow-witted. / Luisa is slow of understanding.
C2Thing as object	contestar a allows la; referirse a does not	La contestó. / Se refirió a ella.	He answered it. / He referred to it.
C1Trap	before que, the verb keeps its preposition	Me alegro de que hayas ido.	I'm glad you went.
C1Trap	if the verb takes no preposition, none is added before que	Pienso que tienes razón.	I think you're right.

Sentence building

Questions and Negatives

Point	Rule	Example	English
Question marks	¿ opens and ? closes every question	¿Hablas inglés?	Do you speak English?
Negative	no goes right before the verb	No hablo inglés.	I don't speak English.
Answers	the first no answers, the second makes the verb negative	¿Tienes hermanos? — No, no tengo hermanos.	Have you got any brothers or sisters? — No, I haven't got any brothers or sisters.
Question words	qué / quién / dónde / cómo / cuánto / por qué open the question, with a written accent	¿Dónde vives?	Where do you live?
Agreeing	también after a statement, tampoco after a negative	No hablo francés. — Yo tampoco.	I don't speak French. — Neither do I.
Prepositions	the preposition comes first, before the question word	¿Con quién trabajas?	Who do you work with?
A2Time	cuándo asks about time	¿Cuándo empiezas las vacaciones?	When do your holidays start?
A2Choice	two options joined by o	¿Prefieres té o café?	Do you prefer tea or coffee?
A2Double negative	no before the verb, nunca / nada / nadie after it	No he estado nunca en México.	I've never been to Mexico.
A2Exclamations	qué + adjective or adverb, between ¡ and !	¡Qué bonito!	How beautiful!
B1Which	qué before a noun, cuál alone	¿Qué libro quieres? / ¿Cuál quieres?	Which book do you want? / Which one do you want?
B2Echo question	the question word stays in the place of the repeated item	¿Marta llegó cuándo?	Marta arrived when?
B2Exclamation with a clause	qué + adjective / adverb + que + clause judges a fact	¡Qué bien que ya estés en casa!	How good that you’re home already!
C1Two question words	with different functions, the second goes last	¿Quién te regaló eso y por qué?	Who gave you that, and why?
C2Surprise or reproach	¿Cómo que …? repeats what the other person said	¿Cómo que no tienes tiempo?	What do you mean, you have no time?
A2Trap	nunca before the verb takes no no	Nunca como carne.	I never eat meat.

Linkers

Point	Rule	Example	English
Adding	y joins two words or two clauses	Soy americana y vivo en Los Ángeles.	I'm American and I live in Los Angeles.
Choice	o offers a choice	¿Eres americano o inglés?	Are you American or English?
Contrast	pero sets two facts against each other, after a comma	Soy alemán, pero vivo en Suiza.	I'm German, but I live in Switzerland.
Negative	after a negative, ni adds the next item	No me gusta el otoño ni el invierno.	I don't like autumn or winter.
Reason	porque gives a reason, after the main clause	Estoy en España porque me gusta.	I'm in Spain because I like it.
A2Spelling	y → e before i, o → u before o	padre e hijo / siete u ocho	father and son / seven or eight
A2Result	por eso opens the result	Está enfermo. Por eso no ha venido.	He's ill. That's why he hasn't come.
A2Time	cuando with the present for what usually happens	Cuando llueve, me quedo en casa.	When it rains, I stay at home.
A2Order	primero / luego / después put actions in order	Primero desayuno, luego me ducho y después salgo.	First I have breakfast, then I have a shower and after that I go out.
B1Reason first	como gives the reason before the main clause	Como no venías, empecé a cenar.	As you weren't coming, I started dinner.
B1Contrast	aunque / sin embargo: a fact that goes against the other	Lo entiendo todo, aunque no hablo bien.	I understand everything, although I don't speak well.
B1Result	así que joins the result to the cause	No había entradas, así que no la vimos.	There were no tickets left, so we didn't see it.
B2Correction	sino corrects what a negative has denied	No quiero té, sino café.	I don't want tea, but coffee.
B2Two negatives	ni … ni before the verb goes without no	Ni me escribió ni me llamó.	He neither wrote to me nor called me.
C1Nuance	ahora bien qualifies what has just been stated	Es un buen plan. Ahora bien, no es barato.	It's a good plan. That said, it isn't cheap.
C2Literary register	mas is the same as pero and takes no accent	Quise ayudar, mas no pude.	I wanted to help, but I couldn't.

Conditional Sentences

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	si + present, then the present	Si quieres, puedes venir.	If you want, you can come.
Use	what usually happens when the condition holds	Si como mucho, me duele el estómago.	If I eat a lot, I get a stomach ache.
Comma	a comma follows the si clause when it comes first	Si llueve, no salgo. / No salgo si llueve.	If it rains, I don't go out. / I don't go out if it rains.
Spelling	si means if, sí with an accent means yes	Si quieres, vamos. / Sí, claro.	If you want, let's go. / Yes, of course.
B1Form	si + present, then the future	Si tengo tiempo, iré.	If I have time, I'll go.
B1Form	si + present, then the imperative	Si puedes, ayúdame.	If you can, help me.
B2Unreal present	si + imperfect subjunctive + conditional	Si estuviera libre, iría contigo.	If I were free, I would go with you.
B2Unreal past	si + past perfect subjunctive + conditional perfect	Si hubiera salido antes, habría llegado.	If I had left earlier, I would have arrived on time.
B2Linkers	siempre que and a no ser que take the subjunctive	Te presto el coche siempre que lo cuides.	I'll lend you the car as long as you look after it.
C1Without si	the gerund and the imperative with y express a condition	Caminando cada día, te sentirás mejor.	If you walk every day, you'll feel better.
C2With de	de + simple or compound infinitive expresses a condition	De haberlo sabido, te habría avisado.	Had I known, I would have told you.
B1Trap	never the future after si in a condition	Si viene Carlota, iremos al cine.	If Carlota comes, we'll go to the cinema.

Relative Clauses

Point	Rule	Example	English
Subject	que is the subject of the clause	Tengo una amiga que vive en Lima.	I've got a friend who lives in Lima.
Object	que is the object of the clause	La profesora que tengo es muy buena.	The teacher I've got is very good.
A2Tense	the clause takes the tense it needs	El libro que compré ayer es muy bueno.	The book I bought yesterday is very good.
B1People	after a preposition, quien for people	El chico con quien trabajo es de Chile.	The boy I work with is from Chile.
B1Places	aquí / allí + es donde: pointing to a place	Allí es donde vivo.	That's where I live.
B2Non-defining	between commas, adds a detail and takes the indicative	Esa chica, que es mi vecina, es muy simpática.	That girl, who is my neighbour, is very nice.
B2Mood	known antecedent, indicative; unknown or non-existent, subjunctive	Busco un libro que sea divertido.	I'm looking for a book that's fun.
C1Possession	cuyo agrees with the thing owned	La chica cuyos padres viven en mi calle es argentina.	The girl whose parents live on my street is Argentinian.
C1Whole sentence	lo cual sums up what was said before	Me dijo que no, lo cual no me gustó nada.	He told me no, which I didn't like at all.
C2Emphasis	que is emphatic after the noun it stresses	¡Vaya cara que tiene!	What a nerve he has!
Trap	que never drops	El libro que leo es interesante.	The book I'm reading is interesting.
B1Trap	right after a noun, people take que, not quien	El médico que vino ayer es muy simpático.	The doctor who came yesterday is very nice.

Reported Speech and Passive se

Point	Rule	Example	English
Reporting now	dice que: the same tense, the person changes	Dice que tiene hambre.	She says she's hungry.
Reporting the past	dijo que: a present becomes the imperfect	Dijo que tenía sueño.	He said he was sleepy.
Orders	dice que with the present subjunctive	Dice que te sientes.	She says you should sit down.
Questions	si for yes-no questions; question words stay, with their accent	Pregunta si vienes. / Me preguntó dónde vivía.	She's asking if you're coming. / He asked me where I lived.
B2Tense backshift	perfect and preterite become past perfect; the future becomes conditional	Dijo que había llegado tarde. / Dijo que vendría el lunes.	He said he had arrived late. / He said he would come on Monday.
Passive se	se with the verb agreeing with the thing	Se vende casa. / Se venden casas.	House for sale. / Houses for sale.
Impersonal se	se with a singular verb: people in general	En este restaurante se come muy bien.	You eat very well in this restaurant.
B2Passive with ser and estar	ser with a participle, the action; estar with a participle, the result	Las puertas fueron abiertas a las diez. / Las puertas están abiertas desde las diez.	The doors were opened at ten. / The doors have been open since ten.
C1Passive of result	estar with a participle takes no agent with por	La tienda estará cerrada el domingo.	The shop will be closed on Sunday.
C1Se with a person	se with a singular verb and a before the person	Se saludó a los conferenciantes.	The speakers were greeted.
C2Middle voice	with certain verbs, se is optional	Esta ventana no se cierra bien. / Esta ventana no cierra bien.	This window doesn't close properly. / This window doesn't close properly.
Trap	pronouns and possessives change with the speaker	Mi casa es pequeña. → Dice que su casa es pequeña.	My house is small. → She says her house is small.
Trap	a plural thing takes a plural verb: se venden	Aquí se hablan tres idiomas.	Three languages are spoken here.

Concessive Clauses: aunque, a pesar de que, por más que

Point	Rule	Example	English
Aunque with the indicative	a real fact or new information	Aunque me duele la cabeza, voy a trabajar.	Even though my head hurts, I'm going to work.
Aunque with the present subjunctive	a known fact that does not matter, or a possibility	Aunque esté lloviendo, voy a correr. / Aunque me lo pidas mil veces, no lo haré.	Even if it's raining, I'm going to run. / Even if you ask me a thousand times, I won't do it.
Aunque with the imperfect subjunctive	a hypothesis, with the conditional in the main clause	Aunque me lo pidieras mil veces, no lo haría.	Even if you asked me a thousand times, I wouldn't do it.
Other linkers	a pesar de que and por más que take the indicative or the subjunctive	Por más que lo intenté, no pude abrirla. / Por más que lo intente, no podrá abrirla.	However hard I tried, I couldn't open it. / However hard he tries, he won't be able to open it.
With si	incluso si and tanto si … como si take the indicative	Tanto si llueve como si no, saldremos.	Whether it rains or not, we'll go out.
C1Reduplicated	the verb repeats in the subjunctive with a relative word	Pase lo que pase, te ayudaré.	Whatever happens, I'll help you.
C1Formal linkers	si bien and aun cuando introduce an obstacle in formal language	Si bien lo sabía, no dijo nada.	Although he knew it, he said nothing.
C1Emphatic	con lo que with the indicative stresses the amount	Con lo que llueve, ¿vas a salir?	With all this rain, are you going out?
C2Así with the subjunctive	así with the subjunctive means the same as aunque in informal speech	No lo vendo, así me ofrezcan un millón.	I won't sell it, even if they offer me a million.
C2Correlative	two options in the subjunctive: it does not matter which one is chosen	Que lo diga o que lo calle, me da igual.	Whether he says it or keeps quiet, I don't care.
Trap	aunque already contrasts: it takes no pero	Aunque llueve, salgo.	Although it's raining, I go out.

Causal Clauses: porque, ya que, puesto que

Point	Rule	Example	English
After the main clause	porque and debido a que come after the main clause	Salgo temprano porque mañana tengo examen.	I'm leaving early because I have an exam tomorrow.
Before or after	ya que and puesto que present a known fact	Puesto que nadie protestó, se aprobó el plan.	Given that nobody objected, the plan was approved.
Two kinds of reason	without a comma, the reason for the fact; with a comma, the reason for what is said	Cierro la ventana porque hace frío. / Cierra la ventana, porque hace frío.	I'm closing the window because it's cold. / Close the window, because it's cold.
C1More linkers	gracias a que gives a favorable reason; por culpa de que, an unfavorable one	Gracias a que me avisaste, llegué a tiempo. / Perdimos el tren por culpa de que el taxi llegó tarde.	Thanks to your warning, I arrived on time. / We missed the train because the taxi was late.
C1Emphatic reason	porque before the main clause stresses the reason	Porque habla cuatro idiomas, lo contrataron.	It was because he speaks four languages that they hired him.
C1Negation	after no, the indicative negates the verb and the subjunctive negates the reason	No se va porque llueve. ≠ No se va porque llueva, sino porque es tarde.	He isn't leaving, because it's raining. ≠ He is leaving not because it's raining, but because it's late.
C2Spoken language	que gives the reason after a comma, in a colloquial register	Apúrate, que perdemos el tren.	Hurry up, we'll miss the train.
C2Excessive reason	de tanto … como presents the reason as excessive	No se veía el suelo de tantas hojas como había.	There were so many leaves that you couldn't see the ground.
C2Question	the reason being asked about takes the subjunctive	¿Es que te callas porque esté tu jefe delante?	Are you keeping quiet because your boss is there?
Trap	an asserted reason takes the indicative	Ya que sabes tanto, explícalo tú.	Since you know so much, you explain it.
Trap	debido a que takes the preposition a	Se retrasó debido a que había niebla.	He was delayed because there was fog.

Result Clauses: tan… que, de modo que, de ahí que

Point	Rule	Example	English
Between sentences	a linker introduces the result: de modo que, por lo tanto	Perdí el tren, de modo que llegué tarde.	I missed the train, so I arrived late.
With an adjective or adverb	tan before an adjective or adverb, then que	Es tan alto que no cabe en la cama.	He is so tall that he doesn't fit in the bed.
With a noun	tanto agrees with the noun	Tenía tantas dudas que no pudo decidir.	She had so many doubts that she couldn't decide.
With a verb	tanto goes after the verb and does not change	Estudia tanto que no tiene tiempo para nada.	She studies so much that she has no time for anything.
Mood	indicative for the result, subjunctive for the purpose	Perdí el tren, de modo que llegué tarde. / Habla de modo que te entiendan.	I missed the train, so I arrived late. / Speak so that they understand you.
C1Educated register	luego, así pues and consecuentemente join two sentences	No hay billetes; así pues, iremos en tren.	There are no tickets; so we'll go by train.
C1Subjunctive	de ahí que takes the subjunctive	El puente está cerrado; de ahí que haya tanto tráfico.	The bridge is closed; that's why there is so much traffic.
C1Educated intensifier	tal goes before the noun, with no article	Tenía tal prisa que olvidó las llaves.	He was in such a hurry that he forgot his keys.
C1Enough to	como para takes an infinitive after lo bastante or tanto	Eres lo bastante mayor como para decidir solo.	You are old enough to decide on your own.
C2Literary register	de suerte que allows the indicative and the subjunctive	Habló de tal suerte que nadie dudó de él.	He spoke in such a way that nobody doubted him.
C2Colloquial	una de … que intensifies a plural noun	Había una de coches que no se podía cruzar.	There were so many cars that you couldn't cross.
Trap	tan announces the result; muy only intensifies	Está tan cansado que se duerme de pie.	He is so tired that he falls asleep standing up.

Infinitive, Gerund and Participle

Point	Rule	Example	English
Infinitive	the understood subject is the object of the main verb	El profesor recomendó al estudiante trabajar más.	The teacher advised the student to work harder.
haber + past participle	an action before that of the main verb	El profesor le regañó por no haber estudiado.	The teacher scolded him for not having studied.
Gerund	an action at the same time as, or before, that of the main verb	Me lo confesó yendo por la calle.	He confessed it to me as he walked down the street.
Participle	predicative: agrees with the noun it describes	Encontré a Sara cansada por el esfuerzo.	I found Sara tired from the effort.
Succession in time	nada más takes an infinitive and una vez, a participle	Nada más llegar, nos pusimos a comer. / Una vez estudiado el problema, decidiremos.	As soon as we arrived, we started to eat. / Once the problem has been studied, we will decide.
C1Independent infinitive	wish or refusal in an exclamation or a question	¡Descansar tres meses!	I wish I could rest for three months!
C1Gerund	manner, time or condition; also independent	Me pidieron perdón cantando.	They apologised to me by singing.
C1Absolute participle	the participle agrees with its subject	Terminada la investigación, se cerró el caso.	Once the investigation was over, the case was closed.
C1Perception verb	the infinitive shows the complete action and the gerund, the action in progress	La vi bajar del autobús. / La vi bajando del autobús.	I saw her get off the bus. / I saw her getting off the bus.
C2Gerund	cause and concession	Lloviendo y todo salió sin paraguas.	Even with it raining, he went out without an umbrella.
C2Participle with a connector	hasta and apenas come before the absolute participle	Hasta concluidas las tres horas no nos pudimos mover.	Until the three hours were over, we could not move.
Trap	the later action takes a conjugated verb	Abrí la puerta y me encontré con él.	I opened the door and ran into him.

Word Order

Point	Rule	Example	English
Subject without a determiner	goes after the verb	Han llegado trenes a la estación. / Se venden casas.	Trains have arrived at the station. / Houses are sold.
Fronted object	the unstressed pronoun picks up the known topic	Los libros los tiene Juan.	Juan has the books.
Negative word	the unstressed pronoun is still required	El alcohol ni lo prueba.	He doesn’t even touch alcohol.
C1New subject	goes at the end of the sentence	Llega mañana Pedro.	Pedro arrives tomorrow.
C1Topic without a determiner	an indefinite picks it up after the verb	Abrigo, tengo uno viejo.	A coat? I have an old one.
C1Contrast or indefinite	the fronted object takes no pronoun	Este vestido he elegido, no aquel. / Discos tienen a montones.	I chose this dress, not that one. / They have loads of records.
C1Topic and question	the topic opens the question and the pronoun picks it up	A María, ¿la has visto últimamente?	María, have you seen her lately?
C2Focus	the stressed object goes first, with no pronoun	UNOS LIBROS quiere Juan.	Juan wants BOOKS.
C2Emphatic order	bonito, vaya and menudo open the sentence	Menudo reloj se compró tu primo.	What a watch your cousin bought himself!
C2Emphatic relative	ser links the relative and the complement	Lo que tú eres es un egoísta.	What you are is a selfish person.
Trap	with a question word as the object in front, there is no pronoun	¿Qué regalo has comprado?	What present have you bought?
C1Trap	in a parenthetical inside a quotation, the verb comes before the subject	María, dijo Luis, no sabe nada.	María, said Luis, knows nothing.

Agreement: la mayoría piensa o piensan

Point	Rule	Example	English
Collective noun	a collective noun with de and a plural noun: singular or plural verb	Llegó un grupo de turistas. / Llegaron un grupo de turistas.	A group of tourists arrived. / A group of tourists arrived.
List	the verb is singular and agrees with the first item	Me preocupa el ruido, el tráfico y la contaminación.	The noise, the traffic and the pollution worry me.
o and ni	o and ni take a singular or a plural verb	Vendrá Ana o Luis. / Vendrán Ana o Luis.	Ana or Luis will come. / Ana or Luis will come.
Person	a group that includes the speaker takes the first person	Los vecinos pensamos que el parque necesita luz.	We neighbours think that the park needs lighting.
Predicative	it agrees with the subject	María bailó la cumbia descalza.	María danced the cumbia barefoot.
Partitive	a partitive and a plural noun: the verb agrees with either one	La mayoría de los compañeros piensa igual. / La mayoría de los compañeros piensan igual.	Most of the colleagues think the same. / Most of the colleagues think the same.
C1Emphatic plural	the plural stresses each individual	La mitad de los invitados se fueron temprano.	Half of the guests left early.
C1Noun phrase	the adjective is plural for two things, singular when they form one unit	una conducta y unas palabras inaceptables / lengua y literatura alemana	unacceptable behaviour and words / German language and literature
C2Adjective and two nouns	before the nouns it agrees with the first; after them it is plural	su asombroso talento y dedicación / su talento y dedicación asombrosos	his astonishing talent and dedication / his talent and dedication, both astonishing
C2Plural of modesty	one speaker uses the first person plural	En este trabajo analizamos tres casos.	In this paper we analyse three cases.
C1Trap	gente and familia take a singular verb	La gente piensa que el precio es alto.	People think the price is high.
C1Trap	after el grupo de, the verb is singular	El grupo de políticos votó a favor.	The group of politicians voted in favour.

Writing

Punctuation

Point	Rule	Example	English
Full stop	a paragraph ends with a full stop; the next one opens with an indent	Aquí termina el primer tema.	The first topic ends here.
Comma	two commas enclose an aside, a clarification or a non-defining relative clause	El viaje, dice Marta, será largo.	The journey, says Marta, will be long.
Colon	they introduce a list or a quotation; they close an enumeration	El curso tiene tres partes: gramática, escritura y lectura. / Pan, queso, aceitunas: eso era toda la cena.	The course has three parts: grammar, writing and reading. / Bread, cheese, olives: that was the whole dinner.
Semicolon	it separates clauses that already contain commas, and clauses with the verb left out	Mi tía, muy cansada, se sentó; llevaba horas de pie. / Ana es abogada; Luis, ingeniero.	My aunt, very tired, sat down; she had been on her feet for hours. / Ana is a lawyer; Luis, an engineer.
Ellipsis	they leave a sentence unfinished; [...] marks an omission in a quotation	Si hubiera llegado antes...	If I had arrived earlier...
Quotation marks and dash	quotation marks nest in the order « », “ ”, ‘ ’; the dash encloses asides and opens dialogue	Luis dijo: «Ana gritó “¡Gol!”». / El cambio —que llegó rápido— nos sorprendió.	Luis said: ‘Ana shouted “Goal!”’. / The change – which came quickly – surprised us.
C1Comma	a fronted subordinate clause ends with a comma	Si tuviera tiempo, te ayudaría.	If I had time, I would help you.
C1Colon and semicolon	a colon explains; a semicolon comes before sin embargo	La paella es valenciana: lleva arroz y azafrán. / Trabajó todo el día; sin embargo, aceptó salir.	Paella comes from Valencia: it has rice and saffron. / He worked all day; however, he agreed to go out.
C1Other marks	an asterisk precedes the incorrect form; the full stop follows the note number	*Me alegro que hayas ido. ≠ Me alegro de que hayas ido.	I am glad you went.
C2Colon	they introduce the cause or the consequence of what was said	No salimos: llovía mucho. / Perdió el vuelo: durmió en el aeropuerto.	We did not go out: it was raining hard. / He missed his flight: he slept at the airport.
C2Other marks	slashes enclose phonemes and separate lines of verse; an apostrophe appears in foreign surnames	El fonema /t/ es dental. · Bernardo O’Higgins	The phoneme /t/ is dental. · Bernardo O’Higgins
Trap	titles and the place-and-date line of a letter end without a full stop	Lima, 10 de mayo de 2026	Lima, 10 May 2026

Abbreviations, acronyms and symbols

Point	Rule	Example	English
Initial letters	the first letters, or the initial of each word, with a full stop	adj. = adjetivo / a. C. = antes de Cristo	adj. = adjective / a. C. = before Christ
Contraction	letters in the middle are left out and a full stop ends the abbreviation	Fdo. = firmado / Sra. = señora	Fdo. = signed / Sra. = Mrs
Superscript letters	the initial, a full stop and the last letter in superscript	M.ª = María / n.º = número	M.ª = María / n.º = number
Slash	two initials joined by a slash, with no full stop	s/n = sin número · c/c = cuenta corriente	s/n = without a number · c/c = current account
Acronyms	the first time, the acronym goes in parentheses after the full name	La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) publicó un informe.	The World Health Organization (WHO) published a report.
Symbols	a sign with no letters stands for a word or an idea	© = derechos de autor	© = copyright
C1Chemical elements	capital initial, no full stop and no plural	Fe = hierro / Ca = calcio	Fe = iron / Ca = calcium
C1Slash and number sign	/ announces more pages and # means “number”	Soy el jugador #7.	I'm player #7.
C2Fixed formulas	each part takes its own full stop and superscript letter	V.º B.º = visto bueno	V.º B.º = approved
C2Specialised texts	† marks a person who has died, and * a hypothetical or incorrect form	Juan Ramos † / *yo sabo ≠ yo sé	Juan Ramos † / *yo sabo ≠ I know
Trap	the full stop goes before the superscript letter	M.ª Luisa vive aquí.	María Luisa lives here.
Trap	an acronym is written in capitals, with no full stops	La OMS publicó un informe.	The WHO published a report.