Cheatsheet B1

Nouns and determiners

Possessives

Point	Rule	Example	English
Before the noun	mi / tu / su / nuestro / su	Mi casa es pequeña.	My house is small.
Before the noun	vosotros: vuestro	¿Es vuestra casa?	Is it your house?
Agreement	the number of the thing owned; nuestro also its gender	Nuestros hijos viven en Quito.	Our children live in Quito.
Owner as a noun	de + owner	la casa de Ana	Ana's house
A2After ser	mío / tuyo / suyo / nuestro / suyo	Esta mochila es mía.	This backpack is mine.
A2Alone	the article and the long form	Mi casa es grande, y la tuya es bonita.	My house is big, and yours is pretty.
B1After the noun	one of several	Marta es una amiga mía.	Marta is a friend of mine.
B1A clear owner	de él, de ella, de usted instead of su	Llevé la maleta de ella.	I carried her suitcase.
Trap	su is his, her, its, their, and your for usted	Ana vive con su hermano.	Ana lives with her brother.
Trap	mis before a plural noun	Mis padres son de Cuba.	My parents are from Cuba.

Quantifiers

Point	Rule	Example	English
mucho	a lot of; agrees with the noun	mucha agua / muchos libros	a lot of water / a lot of books
poco	little, few: not enough	Tengo poco tiempo.	I have little time.
un poco de	a little: there is some	¿Quieres un poco de agua?	Would you like a little water?
A2todo	the whole or every one	Trabajo todos los días.	I work every day.
After a verb	mucho and poco never change	Mi hijo come mucho.	My son eats a lot.
bastante	enough, quite a lot; plural -s	Hay bastantes sillas.	There are enough chairs.
A2demasiado	more than is good	Hay demasiado ruido.	There's too much noise.
B1cada	never changes; singular noun	Voy al gimnasio cada semana.	I go to the gym every week.
A2Trap	otro never takes un	Quiero otro café.	I want another coffee.
Trap	gente is feminine singular	Hay mucha gente.	There are a lot of people.

Indefinites: algo, nadie, ningún

Point	Rule	Example	English
Short answers	Nada / Nadie / Nunca answer a question alone	¿Qué quieres? — Nada.	What do you want? — Nothing.
B1Things	algo ≠ nada	¿Quieres algo?	Do you want something?
B1People	alguien ≠ nadie	¿Hay alguien en casa?	Is anyone at home?
B1With a noun	algún / alguna ≠ ningún / ninguna	¿Tienes alguna pregunta?	Do you have any questions?
B1Before the verb	the negative word alone, with no no	Nadie sabe la respuesta.	Nobody knows the answer.
B1Short forms	algún, ningún before a masculine singular noun	No tengo ningún problema.	I have no problem.
B1People as objects	a alguien, a nadie	No conozco a nadie aquí.	I don't know anyone here.
B1One of a group	alguno de / ninguno de + plural noun	Ninguno de mis amigos habla ruso.	None of my friends speaks Russian.
Trap	nada after the verb keeps no before it	No tengo nada.	I have nothing.
B1Trap	ninguno is singular	No tengo ningún hermano.	I don't have any brothers.

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives: Agreement and Position

Point	Rule	Example	English
Ending in -o	four forms: -o / -a / -os / -as	un libro blanco / unas casas blancas	a white book / some white houses
Ending in -e or a consonant	one form for both genders	un examen fácil / una pregunta fácil	an easy exam / an easy question
Nationality	a consonant ending adds -a for the feminine	un chico español / una chica española	a Spanish boy / a Spanish girl
Plural	-s after a vowel, -es after a consonant	verde → verdes / azul → azules
Position	after the noun as a rule	un vestido rojo	a red dress
Mixed group	masculine and feminine nouns together take the masculine plural	Juan y Ana son simpáticos.	Juan and Ana are nice.
A2-or	adds -a for the feminine	una mujer trabajadora	a hard-working woman
B1buen / mal	bueno and malo drop -o before a masculine singular noun	un buen libro / un mal día	a good book / a bad day
B1gran	grande becomes gran before any singular noun and means great	una gran idea / un gran país	a great idea / a great country
Trap	the noun's gender decides, even when it ends in -a	el mapa nuevo	the new map

Comparatives and Superlatives

Point	Rule	Example	English
más + adjective + que	more … than	El avión es más rápido que el tren.	The plane is faster than the train.
menos + adjective + que	less … than	La fruta es menos cara que la carne.	Fruit is less expensive than meat.
tan + adjective + como	as … as	Mi casa es tan grande como la tuya.	My house is as big as yours.
mejor / peor	mejor and peor compare bueno and malo	Este café es mejor que ese.	This coffee is better than that one.
mayor / menor	older and younger, for people	Mi hermano es mayor que yo.	My brother is older than me.
B1Superlative	el / la / los / las + más + adjective + de + group	Es la más alta de la clase.	She's the tallest in the class.
B1-ísimo	very with more force: drop the last vowel and add -ísimo	La comida está buenísima.	The food is really good.
B1más de	más de and menos de before a number	Hay más de cien personas.	There are more than a hundred people.
tanto / tanta / tantos / tantas + noun + como	as much or as many: it agrees with the noun	No tengo tantos libros como tú.	I don't have as many books as you.
verb + tanto como	tanto after a verb never changes	Trabajas tanto como yo.	You work as much as I do.
B1igual de + adjective + que	just as	Es igual de alto que su padre.	He's just as tall as his father.
Trap	after que and como, the subject pronoun	Eres más alto que yo.	You are taller than me.

Pronouns

Direct Object Pronouns and Personal a

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	me / te / lo / la / nos / los / las	Te quiero.	I love you.
Form	os for vosotros	Os espero en casa.	I'll wait for you at home.
Gender and number	the pronoun takes the gender and number of the noun	¿La sopa? La hago yo.	The soup? I'll make it.
Position	before a conjugated verb	Lo compro hoy.	I'm buying it today.
Position	attached to an infinitive or a gerund, or before the whole phrase	Voy a comprarlo = Lo voy a comprar	I'm going to buy it.
Personal a	a before a specific person or a pet	Veo a María.	I can see María.
B1Personal a	a before quién / alguien / nadie	No conozco a nadie.	I don't know anybody.
An idea	lo replaces an idea or a whole sentence	No lo sé.	I don't know.
Trap	tener takes no a, even before people	Tengo dos hermanos.	I have two brothers.
Trap	a el → al	Llamo al médico.	I'm calling the doctor.

Two Pronouns Together: se lo

Point	Rule	Example	English
B1Order	indirect object + direct object	¿El dinero? Te lo doy mañana.	The money? I'll give it to you tomorrow.
se	le / les → se before lo / la / los / las	¿Las llaves? Se las doy a Pedro.	The keys? I'm giving them to Pedro.
B1os	os comes first too: os lo, os las	¿Las fotos? Os las mando hoy.	The photos? I'll send them to you today.
Clarity	a él / a ella / a ellos show who se is	Se lo digo a ella.	I'll tell her.
B1Position	both before a conjugated verb, side by side	No me lo dice.	He doesn't tell me.
B1Position	both attached to an infinitive or a gerund, or both before the phrase	Voy a dártelo = Te lo voy a dar	I'm going to give it to you.
B1Command	both attached to an affirmative command	Dámelo.	Give it to me.
B1Accent	the verb keeps its stress, so it takes a written accent	dártelo / dándoselo	to give it to you / giving it to him
Trap	le never stands before lo: it is always se lo	Se lo explico.	I'll explain it to him.

Pronouns after Prepositions: mí, ti, conmigo

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	yo → mí, tú → ti	Este café es para mí.	This coffee is for me.
Form	the rest as subject forms: él, ella, usted, nosotros, ellos, ustedes	Hablo con ella.	I'm talking to her.
Form	vosotros and vosotras keep their form	Es para vosotros.	It's for you.
Form	vos keeps its form: para vos, con vos	Esto es para vos.	This is for you.
con	conmigo and contigo for “with me” and “with you” (tú)	¿Vienes conmigo?	Are you coming with me?
B1Subject forms	entre / según / excepto take yo and tú	Entre tú y yo.	Between you and me.
Emphasis	a mí / a ti go with me / te to stress the person	A mí me encanta.	I love it.
Trap	mí takes a written accent; ti never does	Esto es para ti.	This is for you.

Ser, estar, hay, gustar

Ser or Estar with Adjectives

Point	Rule	Example	English
ser	what someone or something is like	Mi jefe es simpático.	My boss is nice.
A2estar	a state now, or the result of a change	La puerta está abierta.	The door is open.
A2Always estar	contento / lleno / roto and other states	El vaso está roto.	The glass is broken.
B1parecer	parecer + adjective: the adjective agrees with the subject	Los niños parecen cansados.	The children look tired.
A2Opinion	es + adjective + infinitive	Es importante dormir bien.	It's important to sleep well.
Trap	bien and mal are adverbs: they take estar	Todo está bien.	Everything is fine.
A2Trap	muerto takes estar: death is a state	El pez está muerto.	The fish is dead.

The present

Reflexive Verbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	a pronoun for each person: me / te / se / nos	Me lavo los dientes.	I brush my teeth.
Form	vosotros: os	¿A qué hora os levantáis?	What time do you get up?
Daily routine	getting up, washing, showering, combing your hair	Me levanto a las siete.	I get up at seven.
Names	llamarse: what someone is called	Me llamo Lucía.	My name is Lucía.
A2With an infinitive	the pronoun joins the infinitive, or goes before the conjugated verb	Quiero levantarme temprano. / Me quiero levantar temprano.	I want to get up early. / I want to get up early.
A2Body and clothes	el, la, not a possessive	Me lavo las manos.	I wash my hands.
A2New meaning	ir is to go; irse is to leave	Ya me voy.	I'm off now.
Trap	the pronoun stays even with yo	Yo me levanto temprano.	I get up early.
Trap	without se, the action falls on something else	Lavo los platos. / Me lavo.	I wash the dishes. / I have a wash.
B1Each other	in the plural, nos / se can mean “each other”	Ana y Luis se quieren mucho.	Ana and Luis love each other very much.

The past

Tense Map

Tense	Meaning	Example	English
Present	habits, facts, now	Siempre desayuno café.	I always have coffee for breakfast.
Present continuous	an action going on now	Estoy estudiando.	I'm studying.
Present perfect	experience, a time up to now	¿Has estado en Chile?	Have you been to Chile?
Preterite	a finished event	Ayer fui al cine.	I went to the cinema yesterday.
Imperfect	description, habits	De niño vivía en Lima.	As a child I lived in Lima.
B1Estaba with the gerund	an action going on at a past moment	Estaba cocinando cuando llamaste.	I was cooking when you called.
B1Past perfect	before another past action	El tren ya había salido.	The train had already left.
Future with ir a	plans, the near future	Voy a viajar en julio.	I'm going to travel in July.
Present	a fixed plan with a time word	Mañana trabajo temprano.	I'm working early tomorrow.
B1Future	predictions, promises	Mañana lloverá.	It will rain tomorrow.
B1Conditional	polite wishes, advice	Me gustaría un café.	I'd like a coffee.

Preterite: comí

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablé / hablaste / habló / hablamos / hablaron	Ayer trabajé mucho.	I worked a lot yesterday.
Form	comer / vivir: comí / comiste / comió / comimos / comieron	Anoche comimos pizza.	We had pizza last night.
Form	vosotros: hablasteis / comisteis / vivisteis	¿Visteis el partido?	Did you see the match?
Form	ser and ir share one set of forms: fui / fue / fueron	El sábado fuimos al cine.	On Saturday we went to the cinema.
Form	a new stem, with no accent: tener → tuve, hacer → hice	Ayer tuve un examen.	I had an exam yesterday.
B1Form	spelling changes in yo: buscar → busqué, llegar → llegué, empezar → empecé	El lunes empecé a trabajar.	On Monday I started work.
B1Form	stem-changing -ir verbs change in él and ellos: pedir → pidió, dormir → durmió	El niño durmió toda la noche.	The child slept all night.
Use	an action finished at a stated past time	Ana nació en 2001.	Ana was born in 2001.
Use	a chain of events, one after another	Llegué, cené y me acosté.	I got home, had dinner and went to bed.
B1Use	a whole period that is over, with its length	Viví tres años en Quito.	I lived in Quito for three years.
Trap	the accent marks the past: hablo ≠ habló	Ayer Ana habló conmigo.	Ana talked to me yesterday.
Trap	fui / fue / vi / dio have no written accent	Te vi ayer.	I saw you yesterday.

Imperfect: comía

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaba / hablabas / hablaba / hablábamos / hablaban	Antes trabajaba en un banco.	I used to work in a bank.
Form	comer / vivir: comía / comías / comía / comíamos / comían	De niña vivía en el campo.	As a child I lived in the countryside.
Form	vosotros: hablabais / comíais / vivíais	¿Dónde vivíais antes?	Where did you live before?
Form	irregular: ser → era, ir → iba, ver → veía	La casa era pequeña.	The house was small.
Use	a description of people, things, places and time	Mi abuelo tenía una casa grande.	My grandfather had a big house.
Use	a habit in the past	Todos los días iba al colegio en bus.	I went to school by bus every day.
B1Use	an action in progress when something else happened	Cuando llegué, llovía.	When I arrived, it was raining.
B1Use	a polite request with quería	Quería un café, por favor.	I'd like a coffee, please.
Form	hay → había, singular for every number	Había muchos niños.	There were a lot of children.
Trap	yo and él share one form: yo trabajaba, él trabajaba	Ella cocinaba y yo limpiaba.	She did the cooking and I did the cleaning.
Trap	every ía form and hablábamos carry an accent	Siempre hablábamos en inglés.	We always spoke English.

Preterite or Imperfect

Point	Rule	Example	English
Preterite	a finished event: what happened	Ayer comí paella.	I had paella yesterday.
Imperfect	the scene: how things were	La paella estaba muy rica.	The paella was delicious.
Preterite	one time, or a stated number of times	El verano pasado fui tres veces a la playa.	Last summer I went to the beach three times.
Imperfect	a habit, with no number	Cada verano iba a la playa.	I went to the beach every summer.
B1Both	the action going on in the imperfect, the event in the preterite	Yo dormía cuando sonó el teléfono.	I was sleeping when the phone rang.
B1Both	estaba + gerund for an action in progress	Estábamos cenando cuando llegó Pedro.	We were having dinner when Pedro arrived.
B1Both	a whole event judged: fue; a description: era	El viaje fue genial. / El hotel era bonito.	The trip was great. / The hotel was nice.
B1Meaning	conocí is meeting someone; conocía is knowing them	Conocí a Laura en una fiesta.	I met Laura at a party.
B1Meaning	supe is finding out; sabía is knowing	Supe la noticia por la radio.	I found out the news on the radio.
B1Trap	a period with its length, now over, takes the preterite	Estuve dos horas en el banco.	I was at the bank for two hours.
Trap	a stage of life is the scene: cuando era niño	Cuando era niño, vivía en Cali.	When I was a child, I lived in Cali.

Present Perfect or Preterite

Point	Rule	Example	English
Preterite	a finished time: ayer, el año pasado, hace dos años	El año pasado viajé a Chile.	Last year I travelled to Chile.
Perfect	experience up to now: alguna vez, nunca	¿Has estado alguna vez en Chile?	Have you ever been to Chile?
Perfect	a situation that goes on up to now	Siempre he vivido aquí.	I've always lived here.
Perfect	a time that includes now: hoy, esta semana, este año	Hoy he comido paella.	I had paella today.
Preterite	a finished action, today too: hoy, esta semana, este año	Hoy comí paella.	I had paella today.
Perfect	ya and something just said or done	¿Ya has terminado?	Have you finished yet?
Preterite	ya and something just said or done	¿Ya terminaste?	Have you finished yet?
B1Both	nunca up to now takes the perfect; nunca in a finished period takes the preterite	Nunca he estado allí en mi vida. / Nunca estuve allí en aquella época.	I've never been there in my life. / I was never there at that time.
Trap	ayer never takes the perfect	Ayer vi a Juan.	I saw Juan yesterday.

Past Perfect: había comido

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	había / habías / había / habíamos / habían + past participle	Ya habíamos cenado.	We had already had dinner.
Form	vosotros: habíais + past participle	¿Habíais estado antes en Madrid?	Had you been to Madrid before?
Form	the participles of the present perfect: hecho, dicho, roto	¿Quién había roto la ventana?	Who had broken the window?
Use	an action before another past action	Cuando llegué, el tren ya había salido.	When I arrived, the train had already left.
Use	experience up to a past moment, with nunca	Nunca había comido ceviche antes.	I had never eaten ceviche before.
Use	the cause of a past situation	Estaba cansada porque había trabajado mucho.	She was tired because she had worked a lot.
Use	what someone said about an earlier action	Me dijo que había perdido el tren.	She told me she had missed the train.
Trap	pronouns and no go before había	Ya lo había leído.	I had already read it.

Irregular Verbs Table

Infinitive	Present, yo	Preterite	Participle
ser	soy	fui	sido
ir	voy	fui	ido
estar	estoy	estuve	estado
tener	tengo	tuve	tenido
hacer	hago	hice	hecho
ver	veo	vi	visto
B1decir	digo	dije	dicho
B1poner	pongo	puse	puesto
B1poder	puedo	pude	podido
B1querer	quiero	quise	querido
B1pedir	pido	pedí / pidió	pedido
B1conducir	conduzco	conduje	conducido

Future and conditional

Simple Future: comeré

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaré / hablarás / hablará / hablaremos / hablarán	Mañana te llamaré.	I'll call you tomorrow.
Form	vosotros: hablaréis / comeréis / viviréis	¿Vendréis a la boda?	Will you come to the wedding?
Irregular stems	tendré / pondré / saldré / vendré / podré	No podré ir.	I won't be able to go.
Irregular stems	haré / diré / querré / sabré / habrá	Lo haré mañana.	I'll do it tomorrow.
Use	a prediction	Mañana lloverá en el norte.	It will rain in the north tomorrow.
Use	a promise	No se lo diré a nadie.	I won't tell anyone.
Use	a guess about now	¿Dónde está Ana? Estará en casa.	Where's Ana? She's probably at home.
Condition	si with the present, then the future	Si llueve, nos quedaremos en casa.	If it rains, we'll stay at home.
Trap	habrá stays singular	Mañana habrá mucha gente.	There will be a lot of people tomorrow.
Trap	never the future after si in a condition	Si tengo tiempo, iré.	If I have time, I'll go.

Conditional: comería

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaría / hablarías / hablaríamos / hablarían	Viviría en la playa.	I'd live by the beach.
Form	vosotros: hablaríais / comeríais / viviríais	¿Vendríais conmigo?	Would you come with me?
Irregular stems	the stems of the future: tendría / podría / haría / diría	Haría cualquier cosa por ti.	I'd do anything for you.
Use	a polite request	¿Podría cerrar la ventana?	Could you close the window?
Use	a wish	Me gustaría ir a Cuba.	I'd like to go to Cuba.
Use	advice: deberías	Deberías descansar.	You should rest.
Trap	every form carries í	Comería algo.	I'd eat something.
Trap	gustar keeps its pattern: me gustaría	Nos gustaría verte.	We'd like to see you.

Imperative and verb phrases

Affirmative Imperative

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	tú: the él form of the present	Habla más despacio, por favor.	Speak more slowly, please.
Form	usted: -ar verbs end in e, -er and -ir verbs in a	Pase, por favor.	Come in, please.
Form	ustedes: the usted form with n	Abran los libros.	Open your books.
Form	vosotros: the r of the infinitive becomes d	Abrid los libros.	Open your books.
Irregular verbs	tú: di / haz / pon / sal / ten / ven / ve / sé	Ven aquí.	Come here.
B1Irregular verbs	usted: esté / sepa, from estar and saber	Esté tranquilo, señor.	Don't worry, sir.
Pronouns	object and reflexive pronouns join the end of the verb	Cómpralo. / Siéntate.	Buy it. / Sit down.
Use	instructions, directions and requests	Sigue por esta calle y gira a la derecha.	Go along this street and turn right.
Use	invitations and offers	Pasa y siéntate.	Come in and sit down.
Fixed forms	mira / oye call for attention; perdona / perdone say sorry	Oye, ¿tienes un lápiz?	Hey, have you got a pencil?
Trap	the tú imperative has no final s: hablas → habla	Escucha, por favor.	Listen, please.

Negative Imperative

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	tú: -ar verbs end in es, -er and -ir verbs in as	No hables tan alto.	Don't speak so loudly.
Form	usted / ustedes: the affirmative form after no	No fume aquí, por favor.	Please don't smoke here.
Form	vosotros: -ar verbs end in éis, -er and -ir verbs in áis	No habléis tan alto.	Don't speak so loudly.
Irregular verbs	the stem of the yo form: no digas / no hagas / no vengas	No digas eso.	Don't say that.
Pronouns	before the verb, after no	No lo toques.	Don't touch it.
Use	prohibitions and warnings	No toques el horno: está caliente.	Don't touch the oven: it's hot.
Use	advice and reassurance	No te preocupes.	Don't worry.
Trap	the negative never takes the affirmative form: ven → no vengas	No vengas tarde.	Don't come late.
Trap	the pronoun moves before the verb: siéntate → no te sientes	No te sientes ahí.	Don't sit there.

Can, Must, Should: poder, saber, deber, tener que, hay que

Point	Rule	Example	English
Permission	¿Puedo + infinitive: asking if something is allowed	¿Puedo abrir la ventana?	Can I open the window?
Requests	¿Puedes + infinitive: asking someone to do something	¿Puedes repetir, por favor?	Can you repeat that, please?
Skills	saber + infinitive: something someone has learned to do	Sé nadar.	I can swim.
Ability now	poder: whether someone is able to do something now	Hoy no puedo salir.	I can't go out today.
Obligation	tener que + infinitive: what one person needs to do	Tengo que trabajar el sábado.	I have to work on Saturday.
Obligation	hay que + infinitive: what everyone needs to do, with no subject	Hay que pagar antes de entrar.	You have to pay before going in.
Pronouns	before the conjugated verb, or at the end of the infinitive	Lo tengo que hacer. / Tengo que hacerlo.	I have to do it. / I have to do it.
B1Duty	deber + infinitive: what is right or required	Debes decir la verdad.	You must tell the truth.
B1Advice	deberías + infinitive: a piece of advice	Deberías descansar.	You should rest.
Trap	tener takes que before the infinitive	Tengo que irme.	I have to go.
B1Trap	no tener que: not necessary; no deber: mustn't, as a duty or advice; no poder: not allowed	No tienes que venir. / No debes mentir. / No puedes fumar aquí.	You don't have to come. / You mustn't lie. / You can't smoke here.

Verb Phrases: acabar de, volver a, soler

Form	Meaning	Example	English
acabar de + infinitive	something that has just happened	Acabo de llegar.	I've just arrived.
empezar a + infinitive	the start of an action	Empiezo a trabajar a las ocho.	I start work at eight.
volver a + infinitive	an action again	Vuelve a llover.	It's raining again.
B1dejar de + infinitive	the end of a habit or an action	Dejé de fumar el año pasado.	I stopped smoking last year.
B1soler + infinitive	a habit	Suelo levantarme temprano.	I usually get up early.
B1seguir + gerund	an action that goes on	Sigo viviendo en Lima.	I still live in Lima.
B1ponerse a + infinitive	a sudden start	El niño se puso a llorar.	The child started crying.
B1estar a punto de + infinitive	something about to happen	El tren está a punto de salir.	The train is about to leave.
Trap	the preposition stays: de, a	Empiezo a entender.	I'm beginning to understand.
B1Trap	seguir takes the gerund	Sigo estudiando.	I'm still studying.

The subjunctive

Present Subjunctive: Forms

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hable / hables / hablemos / hablen	Quiero que hables con él.	I want you to talk to him.
Form	comer: coma / comas / comamos / coman	Espero que comas bien.	I hope you eat well.
Form	vivir: viva / vivas / vivamos / vivan	Ojalá vivamos cerca.	I hope we live close by.
Form	vosotros: habléis / comáis / viváis	Quiero que habléis con él.	I want you to talk to him.
The yo stem	tengo → tenga, hago → haga	Es importante que hagas ejercicio.	It's important that you exercise.
Stem changes	as in the present: quiera / pueda / pida	Ojalá pueda ir.	I hope I can go.
Irregular	sea / vaya / esté / dé / sepa / haya	Espero que sea verdad.	I hope it's true.
Spelling	the sound stays: busque / llegue / empiece	Te llamo cuando llegue.	I'll call you when I arrive.
Trap	estar carries a written accent: esté, estés	Espero que estés bien.	I hope you're well.
Trap	-ir verbs change in nosotros too: pidamos	Es mejor que pidamos pizza.	We'd better order pizza.

Subjunctive for Wishes, Doubt and Opinions

Point	Rule	Example	English
Wishes	querer / esperar / preferir / necesitar with que	Espero que estés bien.	I hope you're well.
ojalá	a hope, always with the subjunctive	Ojalá no llueva.	I hope it doesn't rain.
Feelings	me alegra / me molesta / me da miedo with que	Me alegra que estés aquí.	I'm glad you're here.
Doubt	no creo que / no pienso que / dudo que	No creo que venga.	I don't think she'll come.
Judgements	es importante que / es mejor que / es normal que	Es importante que duermas bien.	It's important that you sleep well.
One subject	the infinitive, with no que	Quiero descansar.	I want to rest.
Belief	creo que and pienso que take the indicative	Creo que viene.	I think she's coming.
Trap	“I want you to” is quiero que with the subjunctive	Quiero que vengas.	I want you to come.
Trap	a fact stated as true takes the indicative: es verdad que	Es verdad que es caro.	It's true that it's expensive.

Subjunctive after cuando, para que, antes de que

Point	Rule	Example	English
cuando	a future event: subjunctive	Cuando tenga dinero, viajaré.	When I have money, I'll travel.
cuando	a habit or the past: indicative	Cuando tengo tiempo, leo.	When I have time, I read.
hasta que	the same as cuando	Espera aquí hasta que vuelva.	Wait here until I come back.
después de que	a future event: subjunctive	Cenaremos después de que lleguen los niños.	We'll have dinner after the children arrive.
antes de que	always the subjunctive	Vámonos antes de que llueva.	Let's go before it rains.
para que	a purpose with another subject: subjunctive	Te lo explico para que lo entiendas.	I'll explain it so that you understand it.
para	a purpose with the same subject: infinitive	Estudio para aprender.	I study to learn.
antes de / después de	the same subject: infinitive	Me lavo las manos antes de comer.	I wash my hands before eating.
Trap	never the future after cuando	Cuando sea mayor, seré médico.	When I grow up, I'll be a doctor.
Trap	the question word cuándo takes the indicative	¿Cuándo vienes?	When are you coming?

Prepositions

Por and Para

Point	Rule	Example	English
para + infinitive	purpose: in order to	Estudio para aprender.	I study to learn.
A2para	destination: towards	Salgo para Lima.	I'm leaving for Lima.
A2para	recipient: who it is for	Este regalo es para ti.	This present is for you.
A2para	deadline: by when	El trabajo es para el lunes.	The work is for Monday.
B1para mí	opinion: in my view	Para mí, es fácil.	For me, it's easy.
A2por	cause: because of	Gracias por todo.	Thanks for everything.
A2por	route: through, along, around	Paseo por el parque.	I walk through the park.
A2por	means: by	Hablamos por teléfono.	We talk on the phone.
A2por	exchange: in return for	Te cambio mi libro por tu revista.	I'll swap my book for your magazine.
por	a part of the day	Trabajo por la mañana.	I work in the morning.
A2por	per	dos veces por semana	twice a week

Sentence building

Questions and Negatives

Point	Rule	Example	English
Question marks	¿ opens and ? closes every question	¿Hablas inglés?	Do you speak English?
Negative	no goes right before the verb	No hablo inglés.	I don't speak English.
Answers	the first no answers, the second makes the verb negative	¿Tienes hermanos? — No, no tengo hermanos.	Have you got any brothers or sisters? — No, I haven't got any brothers or sisters.
Question words	qué / quién / dónde / cómo / cuánto / por qué open the question, with a written accent	¿Dónde vives?	Where do you live?
Agreeing	también after a statement, tampoco after a negative	No hablo francés. — Yo tampoco.	I don't speak French. — Neither do I.
Prepositions	the preposition comes first, before the question word	¿Con quién trabajas?	Who do you work with?
A2Time	cuándo asks about time	¿Cuándo empiezas las vacaciones?	When do your holidays start?
A2Choice	two options joined by o	¿Prefieres té o café?	Do you prefer tea or coffee?
A2Double negative	no before the verb, nunca / nada / nadie after it	No he estado nunca en México.	I've never been to Mexico.
A2Exclamations	qué + adjective or adverb, between ¡ and !	¡Qué bonito!	How beautiful!
B1Which	qué before a noun, cuál alone	¿Qué libro quieres? / ¿Cuál quieres?	Which book do you want? / Which one do you want?
A2Trap	nunca before the verb takes no no	Nunca como carne.	I never eat meat.

Linkers

Point	Rule	Example	English
Adding	y joins two words or two clauses	Soy americana y vivo en Los Ángeles.	I'm American and I live in Los Angeles.
Choice	o offers a choice	¿Eres americano o inglés?	Are you American or English?
Contrast	pero sets two facts against each other, after a comma	Soy alemán, pero vivo en Suiza.	I'm German, but I live in Switzerland.
Negative	after a negative, ni adds the next item	No me gusta el otoño ni el invierno.	I don't like autumn or winter.
Reason	porque gives a reason, after the main clause	Estoy en España porque me gusta.	I'm in Spain because I like it.
A2Spelling	y → e before i, o → u before o	padre e hijo / siete u ocho	father and son / seven or eight
A2Result	por eso opens the result	Está enfermo. Por eso no ha venido.	He's ill. That's why he hasn't come.
A2Time	cuando with the present for what usually happens	Cuando llueve, me quedo en casa.	When it rains, I stay at home.
A2Order	primero / luego / después put actions in order	Primero desayuno, luego me ducho y después salgo.	First I have breakfast, then I have a shower and after that I go out.
B1Reason first	como gives the reason before the main clause	Como no venías, empecé a cenar.	As you weren't coming, I started dinner.
B1Contrast	aunque / sin embargo: a fact that goes against the other	Lo entiendo todo, aunque no hablo bien.	I understand everything, although I don't speak well.
B1Result	así que joins the result to the cause	No había entradas, así que no la vimos.	There were no tickets left, so we didn't see it.

Conditional Sentences

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	si + present, then the present	Si quieres, puedes venir.	If you want, you can come.
Use	what usually happens when the condition holds	Si como mucho, me duele el estómago.	If I eat a lot, I get a stomach ache.
Comma	a comma follows the si clause when it comes first	Si llueve, no salgo. / No salgo si llueve.	If it rains, I don't go out. / I don't go out if it rains.
Spelling	si means if, sí with an accent means yes	Si quieres, vamos. / Sí, claro.	If you want, let's go. / Yes, of course.
B1Form	si + present, then the future	Si tengo tiempo, iré.	If I have time, I'll go.
B1Form	si + present, then the imperative	Si puedes, ayúdame.	If you can, help me.
B1Trap	never the future after si in a condition	Si viene Carlota, iremos al cine.	If Carlota comes, we'll go to the cinema.

Relative Clauses

Point	Rule	Example	English
Subject	que is the subject of the clause	Tengo una amiga que vive en Lima.	I've got a friend who lives in Lima.
Object	que is the object of the clause	La profesora que tengo es muy buena.	The teacher I've got is very good.
A2Tense	the clause takes the tense it needs	El libro que compré ayer es muy bueno.	The book I bought yesterday is very good.
B1People	after a preposition, quien for people	El chico con quien trabajo es de Chile.	The boy I work with is from Chile.
B1Places	aquí / allí + es donde: pointing to a place	Allí es donde vivo.	That's where I live.
Trap	que never drops	El libro que leo es interesante.	The book I'm reading is interesting.
B1Trap	right after a noun, people take que, not quien	El médico que vino ayer es muy simpático.	The doctor who came yesterday is very nice.

Reported Speech and Passive se

Point	Rule	Example	English
Reporting now	dice que: the same tense, the person changes	Dice que tiene hambre.	She says she's hungry.
Reporting the past	dijo que: a present becomes the imperfect	Dijo que tenía sueño.	He said he was sleepy.
Orders	dice que with the present subjunctive	Dice que te sientes.	She says you should sit down.
Questions	si for yes-no questions; question words stay, with their accent	Pregunta si vienes. / Me preguntó dónde vivía.	She's asking if you're coming. / He asked me where I lived.
Passive se	se with the verb agreeing with the thing	Se vende casa. / Se venden casas.	House for sale. / Houses for sale.
Impersonal se	se with a singular verb: people in general	En este restaurante se come muy bien.	You eat very well in this restaurant.
Trap	pronouns and possessives change with the speaker	Mi casa es pequeña. → Dice que su casa es pequeña.	My house is small. → She says her house is small.
Trap	a plural thing takes a plural verb: se venden	Aquí se hablan tres idiomas.	Three languages are spoken here.