Linkers
A1–B1Sentence building 9 min
Linkers join ideas: y adds, o offers a choice, pero contrasts, porque gives a reason and por eso a result. The reason follows the main clause with porque, or comes first with como: No salgo porque llueve. Como llueve, no salgo.
No information at the current level. This view starts at A1: choose A1 or a higher level.
No information at the current level. This view starts at A1: choose A1 or a higher level.
CheatsheetA1–B1
| Point | Rule | Example | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adding | y joins two words or two clauses | Soy americana y vivo en Los Ángeles. | I'm American and I live in Los Angeles. |
| Choice | o offers a choice | ¿Eres americano o inglés? | Are you American or English? |
| Contrast | pero sets two facts against each other, after a comma | Soy alemán, pero vivo en Suiza. | I'm German, but I live in Switzerland. |
| Negative | after a negative, ni adds the next item | No me gusta el otoño ni el invierno. | I don't like autumn or winter. |
| Reason | porque gives a reason, after the main clause | Estoy en España porque me gusta. | I'm in Spain because I like it. |
| A2Spelling | y → e before i, o → u before o | padre e hijo / siete u ocho | father and son / seven or eight |
| A2Result | por eso opens the result | Está enfermo. Por eso no ha venido. | He's ill. That's why he hasn't come. |
| A2Time | cuando with the present for what usually happens | Cuando llueve, me quedo en casa. | When it rains, I stay at home. |
| A2Order | primero / luego / después put actions in order | Primero desayuno, luego me ducho y después salgo. | First I have breakfast, then I have a shower and after that I go out. |
| B1Reason first | como gives the reason before the main clause | Como no venías, empecé a cenar. | As you weren't coming, I started dinner. |
| B1Contrast | aunque / sin embargo: a fact that goes against the other | Lo entiendo todo, aunque no hablo bien. | I understand everything, although I don't speak well. |
| B1Result | así que joins the result to the cause | No había entradas, así que no la vimos. | There were no tickets left, so we didn't see it. |
OverviewA1
- A linker joins two words or two clauses and shows how they relate: adding, choice, contrast, reason, result or time.
- A comma goes before pero, never before y in a simple list: Tengo un hermano y una hermana, pero no tengo primos. — I've got a brother and a sister, but I haven't got any cousins.
Use: adding and choosingA1–A2
| Linker | Use | Example | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| y | adding | Soy americana y vivo en Los Ángeles. | I'm American and I live in Los Angeles. |
| o | a choice | ¿Eres americano o inglés? | Are you American or English? |
| ni | adding after a negative | No me gusta el otoño ni el invierno. | I don't like autumn or winter. |
| A2e | y before i, hi | Quiero verte e ir a tu casa. | I want to see you and go to your house. |
| A2u | o before o, ho | Compra siete u ocho botellas de leche. | Buy seven or eight bottles of milk. |
A2
- y becomes e before a word that starts with the sound i: padre e hijo / inglés e italiano.
- o becomes u before a word that starts with the sound o: siete u ocho / mujer u hombre.
- y stays before hie, which sounds like ye: agua y hielo.
Use: contrastA1–B1
| Linker | Use | Example | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| pero | two facts set against each other | Soy alemán, pero vivo en Suiza. | I'm German, but I live in Switzerland. |
| B1aunque | a fact that goes against the other, in the same sentence | Lo entiendo todo, aunque no hablo bien. | I understand everything, although I don't speak well. |
| B1sin embargo | the contrast at the start of a new sentence or clause | Acepté; sin embargo, no estaba seguro. | I accepted; however, I wasn't sure. |
B1
- aunque with the indicative states a real fact, like pero.
- sin embargo sits between commas, or after a semicolon or a full stop.
Use: reason and resultA1–B1
| Linker | Use | Example | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| porque | the reason, after the main clause | Estoy en España porque me gusta. | I'm in Spain because I like it. |
| B1como | the reason, before the main clause | Como no venías, empecé a cenar. | As you weren't coming, I started dinner. |
| A2por eso | the result | Está enfermo. Por eso no ha venido. | He's ill. That's why he hasn't come. |
| A2entonces | what follows from what was said | Entonces quedamos mañana, ¿no? | So we'll meet tomorrow, then? |
| B1así que | the result, in the same sentence | No había entradas, así que no la vimos. | There were no tickets left, so we didn't see it. |
- porque is one word and answers; por qué is two words and asks: ¿Por qué estudias español? — Porque me gusta. — Why are you studying Spanish? — Because I like it.
Use: timeA2–B1
| Linker | Use | Example | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| cuando | with the present, what usually happens | Cuando llueve, me quedo en casa. | When it rains, I stay at home. |
| antes de + infinitive | the earlier action | Me lavo los dientes antes de acostarme. | I brush my teeth before going to bed. |
| después de + infinitive | the later action | A veces doy un paseo después de cenar. | Sometimes I go for a walk after dinner. |
| primero / luego / después | the order of actions: first, then, after that | Primero desayuno, luego me ducho y después salgo. | First I have breakfast, then I have a shower and after that I go out. |
- antes de and después de take the infinitive when both actions have the same subject.
- B1cuando about the future takes the subjunctive: Subjunctive after cuando, para que, antes de que.
Compare: porque and comoB1
| porque | como |
|---|---|
| after the main clause | before the main clause |
| No salgo porque llueve. — I'm not going out because it's raining. | Como llueve, no salgo. — As it's raining, I'm not going out. |
Typical errorsA1–B1
| ✗ | ✓ | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| No me gusta el otoño y el invierno. | No me gusta el otoño ni el invierno. | after a negative, ni adds the next item |
| ¿Porqué estudias español? | ¿Por qué estudias español? | the question takes two words: por qué |
| A2padre y hijo | padre e hijo | y becomes e before i |
| A2siete o ocho | siete u ocho | o becomes u before o |
| A2Antes de me acuesto, leo un poco. | Antes de acostarme, leo un poco. | antes de takes the infinitive |
| A2Estudio español porque mi trabajo. | Estudio español por mi trabajo. | a noun as the reason takes por; porque takes a clause |
| B1Aunque estoy cansado, pero voy al trabajo. | Aunque estoy cansado, voy al trabajo. | aunque already marks the contrast, so pero stays out |