Cheatsheet A0–B1

Foundations

The Alphabet and Spelling

Point	Rule	Example	English
27 letters	five vowels, a, e, i, o, u; ñ is a letter of its own	niño / español	child / Spanish
Letter names	each name is a short word; spelling aloud uses the names	¿Cómo se escribe Ana? — a, ene, a.	How do you spell Ana? — A, N, A.
v and w	v is called ve, and w doble uv is called uve, and w uve doble	¿Con be o con ve?¿Con be o con uve?	With a b or with a v?
Two letters	ch / ll / rr / qu / gu write one sound with two letters	chico / calle / perro	boy / street / dog
Silent h	h is never pronounced	hola / hora	hello / hour
c and qu	c before a, o, u, qu before e, i, for one sound, /k/	casa / queso	house / cheese
g and gu	g before a, o, u, gu before e, i, for one sound, /g/	gato / guitarra	cat / guitar
z and c	z before a, o, u, c before e, i, for one sound, /s/z before a, o, u, c before e, i, for one sound, /θ/	zapato / cine	shoe / cinema
j and g	j before any vowel and g before e, i sound the same, /x/	jamón / gente	ham / people
b and v	one sound, /b/, with two spellings; each word keeps its own	bueno / vino	good / wine
ll and y	ll and y before a vowel sound the same, /ʝ/	calle / yo	street / I
Small letters	days, months, languages and nationalities start with a small letter	Los lunes estudio inglés.	On Mondays I study English.
¿ ? / ¡ !	questions and exclamations open with an upside-down mark	¿Dónde vives? / ¡Hola!	Where do you live? / Hello!
Trap	the u of gue and gui is silent; ü makes it sound	pingüino	penguin

Sounds and Stress

Point	Rule	Example	English
Vowels	five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, each with one short, clear sound	banana	banana
r / rr	one r between vowels is a single tap; rr is a trill	pero / perro	but / dog
j / ge / gi	a strong, rough h from the back of the throat	jardín / gente	garden / people
ñ	like ny in English canyon	mañana	tomorrow
z / ce / ci	sound /s/, like s	zapato / ciudad	shoe / city
z / ce / ci	sound /θ/, like th in English think	zapato / ciudad	shoe / city
ll / y	one sound, /ʝ/, close to y in English yes	calle / yo	street / I
A1Stress	ending in a vowel, n or s: the next-to-last syllable	casa / hablan	house / they speak
A1Stress	ending in any other consonant: the last syllable	hablar / ciudad	to speak / city
A1Written accent	marks a stress that breaks those two rules	café / árbol / música	coffee / tree / music
A1Words written alike	an accent tells apart two words that are written the same	Tú tienes tu libro.	You have your book.
A2Words written alike	sí and si, mí and mi follow the same rule	Sí, es para mí.	Yes, it's for me.
A1Trap	question words always carry an accent	¿Dónde vives?	Where do you live?

Numbers

Point	Rule	Example	English
0–15	each has its own word	once / quince	eleven / fifteen
16–29	one word: dieci- or veinti- and the unit	dieciséis / veintidós	sixteen / twenty-two
31–99	the tens, y, the unit: three words	treinta y uno / cuarenta y cinco	thirty-one / forty-five
100	cien alone or before a noun, ciento before another number	cien euros / ciento veinte	a hundred euros / a hundred and twenty
1000	mil takes no un and stays the same after any number	mil / tres mil	a thousand / three thousand
A1Hundreds	from 200, they agree with the noun	doscientas personas	two hundred people
A1millón	a noun: millones in the plural, de before what it counts	dos millones de personas	two million people
A1uno	un before a masculine noun, una before a feminine one	veintiún años / veintiuna casas	twenty-one years / twenty-one houses
A1Ordinals	primero to décimo; they agree with the noun and go before it	la segunda calle	the second street
A2primer / tercer	primero and tercero drop -o before a masculine singular noun	el primer día / el tercer piso	the first day / the third floor
Trap	500, 700 and 900 change their first part	quinientos / setecientos / novecientos	five hundred / seven hundred / nine hundred
Trap	no y after the hundreds	ciento veinte / doscientos cinco	a hundred and twenty / two hundred and five

Days, Months and Dates

Point	Rule	Example	English
Days	the week starts on lunes and ends on domingo	lunes / domingo	Monday / Sunday
On a day	el before a day, with no preposition; los for every week	el lunes / los lunes	on Monday / on Mondays
Months	twelve months, from enero to diciembre	enero / diciembre	January / December
In a month	en before a month, a season or a year	en mayo / en verano	in May / in summer
Small letters	days and months start with a small letter	Hoy es martes.	Today is Tuesday.
The date	el + number + de + month; the day is a plain number	el 22 de marzo	22 March
The first	el primero / el uno for the first day of the month: both are correct	el primero de mayo	1 May
Years	a whole number, with de before it in a full date	el 2 de mayo de 2026	2 May 2026
Asking	¿Qué día es hoy? for the day, ¿Qué fecha es hoy? for the date	¿Qué día es hoy? — Hoy es martes.	What day is it today? — Today is Tuesday.
Written dates	day, month, year	04/07/2026 → el 4 de julio de 2026
Trap	a date takes el, never en	Llego el 3 de junio.	I arrive on 3 June.

Telling the Time

Point	Rule	Example	English
Asking	ask ¿Qué hora es? and answer with es or son	¿Qué hora es? — Son las tres.	What time is it? — It's three o'clock.
The hour	es la una; every other hour takes son las	Es la una. / Son las dos.	It's one o'clock. / It's two o'clock.
en punto	a full hour	Son las cinco en punto.	It's five o'clock.
Minutes 1–30	the hour, y, the minutes	las dos y diez	ten past two
cuarto / media	cuarto is 15 minutes, media is 30	las tres y cuarto / las tres y media	quarter past three / half past three
A1Minutes 31–59	the next hour, menos, the minutes left	las cuatro menos diez / las cuatro menos cuarto	ten to four / quarter to four
A1Minutes 31–59	also the minutes left, para, the next hour	diez para las cuatro	ten to four
A1a las	a las and the time for when something happens; a la una	La clase empieza a las nueve.	The class starts at nine.
A1Parts of the day	de la mañana / de la tarde / de la noche after the time	las ocho de la noche	eight in the evening
A124 hours	speech uses 12 hours; timetables use 24	18:30 → las dieciocho treinta
Trap	the hour always takes la or las	Son las tres.	It's three o'clock.

Nouns and determiners

Gender

Point	Rule	Example	English
Masculine	most nouns in -o	el libro	the book
Feminine	most nouns in -a	la casa	the house
Other endings	-e or a consonant: learn the article with the noun	el café / la noche	the coffee / the night
People	-o → -a	la niña / la amiga	the girl / the (female) friend
A2People in -or	the feminine adds -a	profesor → profesora	(female) teacher
A2One form for both	-ista, -nte: the article shows the sex	el estudiante / la estudiante	the (male) student / the (female) student
A2Feminine endings	-ción, -sión, -dad, -tad, -tud	la canción / la ciudad	the song / the city
A2Masculine endings	-aje, -or, and -ma in many nouns	el viaje / el problema	the trip / the problem
Agreement	articles and adjectives follow the noun	una casa blanca	a white house
A2Trap	día is masculine although it ends in -a	Buenos días.	Good morning.
A2Trap	mano is feminine although it ends in -o	Tengo las manos frías.	My hands are cold.

Plurals

Point	Rule	Example	English
Vowel	+ s	casa → casas	houses
Consonant	+ es	ciudad → ciudades	cities
A2-z	z → ces	lápiz → lápices	pencils
Agreement	article and adjective go plural too	las casas blancas	the white houses
A2Unstressed -s	no change	el lunes → los lunes	Mondays
A2Written accent	the stress stays: the accent comes or goes	canción → canciones / joven → jóvenes	songs / young people
A2Plural only	one object with a plural name	Mis pantalones son nuevos.	My trousers are new.
A2Trap	-z becomes -c: lápices, veces	Tengo dos lápices.	I have two pencils.
A2Trap	gente is singular	La gente es amable.	People are friendly.

Articles

Point	Rule	Example	English
Definite	el / la / los / las	¿Dónde está el baño?	Where is the bathroom?
Indefinite	un / una / unos / unas	Tengo un hermano.	I have a brother.
Contractions	a el → al, de el → del	Voy al mercado.	I'm going to the market.
In general	things in general take the definite article	Me gustan los perros.	I like dogs.
Days	el lunes means “on Monday”	Te llamo el lunes.	I'll call you on Monday.
No article	a job after ser	Ana es profesora.	Ana is a teacher.
A2No article	an amount that is not counted	Compro pan.	I'm buying bread.
A2Stressed a	el before a feminine noun in stressed a	El agua está fría.	The water is cold.
A2Body	the article instead of a possessive	Me duele la cabeza.	My head hurts.
Trap	no un or una before a job	Mi padre es médico.	My father is a doctor.

This, That, That Over There

Point	Rule	Example	English
Near me	este / esta / estos / estas	Este libro es nuevo.	This book is new.
Near you	ese / esa / esos / esas	¿Cuánto cuesta esa mochila?	How much is that backpack?
Far from us both	aquel / aquella / aquellos / aquellas	Aquella casa es de mi abuela.	That house over there is my grandmother's.
Agreement	gender and number of the noun	Me gustan estos zapatos.	I like these shoes.
Alone	for a known noun, with no written accent	No quiero este libro; quiero ese.	I don't want this book; I want that one.
Neuter	esto, eso: a thing with no name yet	¿Qué es esto?	What is this?
A2What was said	eso for what someone just said	Eso es verdad.	That's true.
A2Time	the present period: este año	Esta semana tengo exámenes.	I have exams this week.
Trap	before a noun, este, never esto	Quiero este pastel.	I want this cake.
Trap	introducing a person: este / esta	Este es mi hermano.	This is my brother.

Possessives

Point	Rule	Example	English
Before the noun	mi / tu / su / nuestro / su	Mi casa es pequeña.	My house is small.
Before the noun	vosotros: vuestro	¿Es vuestra casa?	Is it your house?
Agreement	the number of the thing owned; nuestro also its gender	Nuestros hijos viven en Quito.	Our children live in Quito.
Owner as a noun	de + owner	la casa de Ana	Ana's house
A2After ser	mío / tuyo / suyo / nuestro / suyo	Esta mochila es mía.	This backpack is mine.
A2Alone	the article and the long form	Mi casa es grande, y la tuya es bonita.	My house is big, and yours is pretty.
B1After the noun	one of several	Marta es una amiga mía.	Marta is a friend of mine.
B1A clear owner	de él, de ella, de usted instead of su	Llevé la maleta de ella.	I carried her suitcase.
Trap	su is his, her, its, their, and your for usted	Ana vive con su hermano.	Ana lives with her brother.
Trap	mis before a plural noun	Mis padres son de Cuba.	My parents are from Cuba.

Quantifiers

Point	Rule	Example	English
mucho	a lot of; agrees with the noun	mucha agua / muchos libros	a lot of water / a lot of books
poco	little, few: not enough	Tengo poco tiempo.	I have little time.
un poco de	a little: there is some	¿Quieres un poco de agua?	Would you like a little water?
A2todo	the whole or every one	Trabajo todos los días.	I work every day.
After a verb	mucho and poco never change	Mi hijo come mucho.	My son eats a lot.
bastante	enough, quite a lot; plural -s	Hay bastantes sillas.	There are enough chairs.
A2demasiado	more than is good	Hay demasiado ruido.	There's too much noise.
B1cada	never changes; singular noun	Voy al gimnasio cada semana.	I go to the gym every week.
A2Trap	otro never takes un	Quiero otro café.	I want another coffee.
Trap	gente is feminine singular	Hay mucha gente.	There are a lot of people.

Indefinites: algo, nadie, ningún

Point	Rule	Example	English
Short answers	Nada / Nadie / Nunca answer a question alone	¿Qué quieres? — Nada.	What do you want? — Nothing.
B1Things	algo ≠ nada	¿Quieres algo?	Do you want something?
B1People	alguien ≠ nadie	¿Hay alguien en casa?	Is anyone at home?
B1With a noun	algún / alguna ≠ ningún / ninguna	¿Tienes alguna pregunta?	Do you have any questions?
B1Before the verb	the negative word alone, with no no	Nadie sabe la respuesta.	Nobody knows the answer.
B1Short forms	algún, ningún before a masculine singular noun	No tengo ningún problema.	I have no problem.
B1People as objects	a alguien, a nadie	No conozco a nadie aquí.	I don't know anyone here.
B1One of a group	alguno de / ninguno de + plural noun	Ninguno de mis amigos habla ruso.	None of my friends speaks Russian.
Trap	nada after the verb keeps no before it	No tengo nada.	I have nothing.
B1Trap	ninguno is singular	No tengo ningún hermano.	I don't have any brothers.

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives: Agreement and Position

Point	Rule	Example	English
Ending in -o	four forms: -o / -a / -os / -as	un libro blanco / unas casas blancas	a white book / some white houses
Ending in -e or a consonant	one form for both genders	un examen fácil / una pregunta fácil	an easy exam / an easy question
Nationality	a consonant ending adds -a for the feminine	un chico español / una chica española	a Spanish boy / a Spanish girl
Plural	-s after a vowel, -es after a consonant	verde → verdes / azul → azules
Position	after the noun as a rule	un vestido rojo	a red dress
Mixed group	masculine and feminine nouns together take the masculine plural	Juan y Ana son simpáticos.	Juan and Ana are nice.
A2-or	adds -a for the feminine	una mujer trabajadora	a hard-working woman
B1buen / mal	bueno and malo drop -o before a masculine singular noun	un buen libro / un mal día	a good book / a bad day
B1gran	grande becomes gran before any singular noun and means great	una gran idea / un gran país	a great idea / a great country
Trap	the noun's gender decides, even when it ends in -a	el mapa nuevo	the new map

Comparatives and Superlatives

Point	Rule	Example	English
más + adjective + que	more … than	El avión es más rápido que el tren.	The plane is faster than the train.
menos + adjective + que	less … than	La fruta es menos cara que la carne.	Fruit is less expensive than meat.
tan + adjective + como	as … as	Mi casa es tan grande como la tuya.	My house is as big as yours.
mejor / peor	mejor and peor compare bueno and malo	Este café es mejor que ese.	This coffee is better than that one.
mayor / menor	older and younger, for people	Mi hermano es mayor que yo.	My brother is older than me.
B1Superlative	el / la / los / las + más + adjective + de + group	Es la más alta de la clase.	She's the tallest in the class.
B1-ísimo	very with more force: drop the last vowel and add -ísimo	La comida está buenísima.	The food is really good.
B1más de	más de and menos de before a number	Hay más de cien personas.	There are more than a hundred people.
tanto / tanta / tantos / tantas + noun + como	as much or as many: it agrees with the noun	No tengo tantos libros como tú.	I don't have as many books as you.
verb + tanto como	tanto after a verb never changes	Trabajas tanto como yo.	You work as much as I do.
B1igual de + adjective + que	just as	Es igual de alto que su padre.	He's just as tall as his father.
Trap	after que and como, the subject pronoun	Eres más alto que yo.	You are taller than me.

Adverbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
bien / mal	the adverbs of bueno and malo	Hablas bien español.	You speak Spanish well.
muy	before an adjective or an adverb	Es muy simpática.	She's very nice.
mucho	after a verb; as an adverb it never changes	Trabajo mucho.	I work a lot.
Place	aquí / ahí / allí: here, there, over there	El libro está aquí.	The book is here.
acá / allá	very frequent in Latin America, above all in Mexico and the Southern Cone, beside aquí and allí	Vivo acá.	I live here.
Time	hoy / mañana / ahora / después	Mañana tengo clase.	Tomorrow I have class.
Frequency	siempre / normalmente / todos los días / a veces	Siempre desayuno en casa.	I always have breakfast at home.
A2nunca	before the verb, or after it with no in front	Nunca bebo café. / No bebo café nunca.	I never drink coffee. / I never drink coffee.
también / tampoco	también agrees with a positive, tampoco with a negative	No tengo hambre. — Yo tampoco.	I'm not hungry. — Me neither.
A2-mente	feminine adjective + -mente	lenta → lentamente / fácil → fácilmente
A2ya / todavía	ya: already; todavía: still; todavía no: not yet	Todavía vivo con mis padres.	I still live with my parents.
A2Trap	the adjective keeps its written accent before -mente	rápida → rápidamente

Pronouns

Subject Pronouns

Point	Rule	Example	English
Singular	yo / tú / él / ella / usted	¿Tú eres Pablo?	Are you Pablo?
Plural	nosotros / nosotras / ellos / ellas / ustedes	Ellos son mis padres.	They're my parents.
Plural “you”	ustedes for any group: friends or strangers	¿Ustedes son hermanos?	Are you brothers?
Plural “you”	vosotros / vosotras for friends and family, ustedes for strangers	¿Vosotros sois hermanos?	Are you brothers?
A1Usted	formal “you”: it takes the verb form of él	¿Usted habla inglés?	Do you speak English?
A1No pronoun	the verb ending names the person, so the pronoun drops	Vivo en Lima.	I live in Lima.
A1Contrast	the pronoun stays to set two people apart	Yo trabajo y tú estudias.	I work and you study.
A1Mixed group	men and women together take nosotros or ellos	¿Ana y Pedro? Ellos también son de Chile.	Ana and Pedro? They're from Chile too.
A2Trap	“it” as a subject has no pronoun: the verb stands alone	Llueve.	It's raining.

Forms of Address: tú, usted, vosotros, ustedes

Point	Rule	Example	English
tú	one person you know well: friends, family, children	¿Tienes hambre?	Are you hungry?
usted	one person, formally: strangers, older people, customers	¿Tiene usted hora?	Do you have the time?
ustedes	any group: friends or strangers	Chicos, ¿tienen hambre?	Guys, are you hungry?
vosotros	a group you know well	Chicos, ¿tenéis hambre?	Guys, are you hungry?
ustedes	a group, formally	¿Qué desean, señores?	What would you like?
A2Possessive	usted and ustedes take su for “your”	¿Es su maleta, señor?	Is this your suitcase, sir?
A2Object	usted takes lo, la and le, like él and ella	Señora, la llamo mañana.	Madam, I'll call you tomorrow.
A2vos	replaces tú in Argentina, Uruguay and Central America	¿Vos tenés tiempo?	Do you have time?
Trap	usted takes the verb form of él, never of tú	¿Usted es de aquí?	Are you from here?

Direct Object Pronouns and Personal a

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	me / te / lo / la / nos / los / las	Te quiero.	I love you.
Form	os for vosotros	Os espero en casa.	I'll wait for you at home.
Gender and number	the pronoun takes the gender and number of the noun	¿La sopa? La hago yo.	The soup? I'll make it.
Position	before a conjugated verb	Lo compro hoy.	I'm buying it today.
Position	attached to an infinitive or a gerund, or before the whole phrase	Voy a comprarlo = Lo voy a comprar	I'm going to buy it.
Personal a	a before a specific person or a pet	Veo a María.	I can see María.
B1Personal a	a before quién / alguien / nadie	No conozco a nadie.	I don't know anybody.
An idea	lo replaces an idea or a whole sentence	No lo sé.	I don't know.
Trap	tener takes no a, even before people	Tengo dos hermanos.	I have two brothers.
Trap	a el → al	Llamo al médico.	I'm calling the doctor.

Indirect Object Pronouns

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	me / te / le / nos / les	Te mando un mensaje.	I'll send you a message.
Form	os for vosotros	Os traigo un regalo.	I'm bringing you a present.
Meaning	the person who receives something: to whom, for whom	Le compro flores a mi madre.	I'm buying my mother flowers.
No gender	le serves a man, a woman and usted	Le escribo a Ana.	I'm writing to Ana.
Doubling	le or les stays beside a + person	Les escribo a mis padres.	I write to my parents.
Clarity	a él / a ella / a usted make le clear	Le escribo a ella, no a él.	I'm writing to her, not to him.
Position	like the direct object: before the conjugated verb, or attached	Voy a escribirle = Le voy a escribir	I'm going to write to him.
Trap	preguntar takes an indirect object: le	Le pregunto a Juan.	I'm asking Juan.

Two Pronouns Together: se lo

Point	Rule	Example	English
B1Order	indirect object + direct object	¿El dinero? Te lo doy mañana.	The money? I'll give it to you tomorrow.
se	le / les → se before lo / la / los / las	¿Las llaves? Se las doy a Pedro.	The keys? I'm giving them to Pedro.
B1os	os comes first too: os lo, os las	¿Las fotos? Os las mando hoy.	The photos? I'll send them to you today.
Clarity	a él / a ella / a ellos show who se is	Se lo digo a ella.	I'll tell her.
B1Position	both before a conjugated verb, side by side	No me lo dice.	He doesn't tell me.
B1Position	both attached to an infinitive or a gerund, or both before the phrase	Voy a dártelo = Te lo voy a dar	I'm going to give it to you.
B1Command	both attached to an affirmative command	Dámelo.	Give it to me.
B1Accent	the verb keeps its stress, so it takes a written accent	dártelo / dándoselo	to give it to you / giving it to him
Trap	le never stands before lo: it is always se lo	Se lo explico.	I'll explain it to him.

Pronouns after Prepositions: mí, ti, conmigo

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	yo → mí, tú → ti	Este café es para mí.	This coffee is for me.
Form	the rest as subject forms: él, ella, usted, nosotros, ellos, ustedes	Hablo con ella.	I'm talking to her.
Form	vosotros and vosotras keep their form	Es para vosotros.	It's for you.
Form	vos keeps its form: para vos, con vos	Esto es para vos.	This is for you.
con	conmigo and contigo for “with me” and “with you” (tú)	¿Vienes conmigo?	Are you coming with me?
B1Subject forms	entre / según / excepto take yo and tú	Entre tú y yo.	Between you and me.
Emphasis	a mí / a ti go with me / te to stress the person	A mí me encanta.	I love it.
Trap	mí takes a written accent; ti never does	Esto es para ti.	This is for you.

Ser, estar, hay, gustar

Ser and Estar

Point	Rule	Example	English
First phrases	ser in the first phrases: soy / eres / es / son	Soy Ana. / ¿Eres Pablo? / Son las dos.	I'm Ana. / Are you Pablo? / It's two o'clock.
First phrases	vosotros: sois	¿Vosotros sois hermanos?	Are you brothers?
A1Form	ser: soy / eres / es / somos / son	Soy de México.	I'm from Mexico.
A1Form	estar: estoy / estás / está / estamos / están	Estoy en casa.	I'm at home.
A1Form	vosotros: sois / estáis	¿Sois hermanos?	Are you brothers?
A1Identity	ser: name, job, nationality, origin	Mi madre es médica.	My mother is a doctor.
A1Description	ser: what someone or something is like	La casa es grande.	The house is big.
A1Time and date	ser: the hour, the day, the date	Son las tres.	It's three o'clock.
A1Place	estar: where someone or something is	El banco está en la plaza.	The bank is in the square.
A1State	estar: how someone feels or how something is now	Estoy cansada.	I'm tired.
A2Result	estar + past participle: the result of a change	La tienda está cerrada.	The shop is closed.
A1Material	ser + de: what it is made of	La mesa es de madera.	The table is made of wood.
A2Owner	ser + de: whose it is	El libro es de Luis.	The book is Luis's.
A1Trap	a place that never moves still takes estar	Madrid está en España.	Madrid is in Spain.

Ser or Estar with Adjectives

Point	Rule	Example	English
ser	what someone or something is like	Mi jefe es simpático.	My boss is nice.
A2estar	a state now, or the result of a change	La puerta está abierta.	The door is open.
A2Always estar	contento / lleno / roto and other states	El vaso está roto.	The glass is broken.
B1parecer	parecer + adjective: the adjective agrees with the subject	Los niños parecen cansados.	The children look tired.
A2Opinion	es + adjective + infinitive	Es importante dormir bien.	It's important to sleep well.
Trap	bien and mal are adverbs: they take estar	Todo está bien.	Everything is fine.
A2Trap	muerto takes estar: death is a state	El pez está muerto.	The fish is dead.

Hay and Está

Point	Rule	Example	English
hay	un / una / unos, a number, mucho / poco	Hay una farmacia cerca.	There's a chemist's nearby.
hay	a plural or uncountable noun alone	Hay pan en la mesa.	There's bread on the table.
está	el / la / mi / este, a proper name	Mi casa está cerca.	My house is nearby.
Number	está for one thing, están for several	Los niños están en el parque.	The children are in the park.
Question	hay to find something, dónde está for its place	¿Hay un baño por aquí? / ¿Dónde está el baño?	Is there a toilet around here? / Where is the toilet?
Negative	no hay, usually without un / una	No hay leche.	There's no milk.
Trap	hay has one form for the singular and the plural	Hay muchos turistas.	There are lots of tourists.
Trap	a known thing takes está	El supermercado está en esta calle.	The supermarket is on this street.

Gustar and Similar Verbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
First forms	me gusta / te gusta / le gusta	¿Te gusta el café? — Sí, me gusta mucho.	Do you like coffee? — Yes, I like it a lot.
A2Form	me / te / le / nos / les + gusta / gustan	Nos gusta la playa.	We like the beach.
A2Form	os gusta for vosotros	¿Os gusta la comida?	Do you like the food?
A2Form	les gusta for any group of listeners	¿Les gusta la comida?	Do you like the food?
gusta	one thing, or one or more infinitives	Me gusta bailar.	I like dancing.
gustan	several things	Me gustan los perros.	I like dogs.
A2The person	a + person, with the pronoun as well	A mi madre le gusta el té.	My mother likes tea.
A2Agreeing	a mí también / a mí tampoco / a mí sí / a mí no	Me gusta el fútbol. — A mí también.	I like football. — So do I.
A2encantar	“love”: works like gustar	Me encanta esta canción.	I love this song.
A2Similar verbs	doler / interesar / importar / parecer / quedar	Me duele la cabeza.	I've got a headache.
Trap	the person is me / te / le, never the subject	Me gusta el chocolate.	I like chocolate.
Trap	the thing liked takes its article: la música	Me gusta la música.	I like music.

The present

Present Tense: Regular Verbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablo / hablas / habla / hablamos / hablan	Hablo español.	I speak Spanish.
Form	comer: como / comes / come / comemos / comen	¿Qué comes?	What do you eat?
Form	vivir: vivo / vives / vive / vivimos / viven	Mis padres viven en Lima.	My parents live in Lima.
Form	vosotros: habláis / coméis / vivís	¿Dónde vivís?	Where do you live?
Person	the ending names the person; the pronoun usually drops	Vivo en Quito.	I live in Quito.
Use	what happens now, habits and facts	Todos los días camino al trabajo.	I walk to work every day.
Negative	no goes before the verb	No como carne.	I don't eat meat.
Question	the same words, between ¿ and ?, with a rising voice	¿Hablas inglés?	Do you speak English?
Trap	usted takes the forms of él and ella	¿Habla usted inglés?	Do you speak English?
Trap	-er and -ir differ with nosotros	Comemos aquí. / Vivimos aquí.	We eat here. / We live here.

Present Tense: Irregular Verbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
Set phrases	first met as whole phrases: quiero / tengo … años	Quiero un café. / Tengo veinte años.	I want a coffee. / I'm twenty.
ir	voy / vas / va / vamos / van	Voy al cine.	I'm going to the cinema.
A2e → ie	querer: quiero / quieres / quiere / queremos / quieren	Quiero un café.	I want a coffee.
A2o → ue	poder: puedo / puedes / puede / podemos / pueden	¿Puedes venir mañana?	Can you come tomorrow?
A2u → ue	jugar: juego / juegas / juega / jugamos / juegan	Los niños juegan en el parque.	The children play in the park.
A2Yo in -go	hago / pongo / salgo; the other persons are regular	Salgo de casa a las ocho.	I leave home at eight.
A2tener, venir	-go in yo, ie in the stressed forms: tengo / tienes	Tengo dos hermanos.	I have two brothers.
A2Stress	the vowel changes only where the stress falls on it	Puedo ir. / Podemos ir.	I can go. / We can go.
A2e → i	pedir: pido / pides / pide / pedimos / piden	Siempre pido lo mismo.	I always order the same thing.
A2Yo in -zco	conozco / parezco / traduzco	No conozco Lima.	I don't know Lima.
A2Other yo forms	sé / doy / veo / traigo	No sé.	I don't know.
A2tener with a noun	hunger, thirst, cold, heat, sleepiness and fear: tengo hambre / tengo sed / tengo frío / tengo miedo	¿Tienes hambre?	Are you hungry?
A2hace and the weather	hace frío / hace calor / hace sol / hace viento	Hoy hace calor.	It's hot today.
A2Trap	nosotros keeps the vowel of the infinitive	¿Podemos entrar?	Can we come in?
A2Trap	decir changes twice: digo / dices	Siempre dice la verdad.	She always tells the truth.

Reflexive Verbs

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	a pronoun for each person: me / te / se / nos	Me lavo los dientes.	I brush my teeth.
Form	vosotros: os	¿A qué hora os levantáis?	What time do you get up?
Daily routine	getting up, washing, showering, combing your hair	Me levanto a las siete.	I get up at seven.
Names	llamarse: what someone is called	Me llamo Lucía.	My name is Lucía.
A2With an infinitive	the pronoun joins the infinitive, or goes before the conjugated verb	Quiero levantarme temprano. / Me quiero levantar temprano.	I want to get up early. / I want to get up early.
A2Body and clothes	el, la, not a possessive	Me lavo las manos.	I wash my hands.
A2New meaning	ir is to go; irse is to leave	Ya me voy.	I'm off now.
Trap	the pronoun stays even with yo	Yo me levanto temprano.	I get up early.
Trap	without se, the action falls on something else	Lavo los platos. / Me lavo.	I wash the dishes. / I have a wash.
B1Each other	in the plural, nos / se can mean “each other”	Ana y Luis se quieren mucho.	Ana and Luis love each other very much.

Present Continuous: estoy comiendo

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	estar + gerund	Estoy trabajando.	I'm working.
Gerund	hablar → hablando	Ana está hablando por teléfono.	Ana is on the phone.
Gerund	comer → comiendo, vivir → viviendo	Estamos comiendo.	We're eating.
Gerund	leer → leyendo, oír → oyendo	Estoy leyendo un libro.	I'm reading a book.
Gerund	dormir → durmiendo, decir → diciendo	El bebé está durmiendo.	The baby is sleeping.
Use	an action in progress now	¿Qué estás haciendo?	What are you doing?
Use	a situation for a limited time	Este año estoy estudiando inglés.	I'm studying English this year.
Pronouns	before estar, or joined to the gerund	Me estoy vistiendo. / Estoy vistiéndome.	I'm getting dressed. / I'm getting dressed.
Trap	routines take the present	Todos los días trabajo ocho horas.	I work eight hours every day.
Trap	plans take the present or ir a	Mañana salgo para Lima.	I'm leaving for Lima tomorrow.

The past

Tense Map

Tense	Meaning	Example	English
Present	habits, facts, now	Siempre desayuno café.	I always have coffee for breakfast.
Present continuous	an action going on now	Estoy estudiando.	I'm studying.
Present perfect	experience, a time up to now	¿Has estado en Chile?	Have you been to Chile?
Preterite	a finished event	Ayer fui al cine.	I went to the cinema yesterday.
Imperfect	description, habits	De niño vivía en Lima.	As a child I lived in Lima.
B1Estaba with the gerund	an action going on at a past moment	Estaba cocinando cuando llamaste.	I was cooking when you called.
B1Past perfect	before another past action	El tren ya había salido.	The train had already left.
Future with ir a	plans, the near future	Voy a viajar en julio.	I'm going to travel in July.
Present	a fixed plan with a time word	Mañana trabajo temprano.	I'm working early tomorrow.
B1Future	predictions, promises	Mañana lloverá.	It will rain tomorrow.
B1Conditional	polite wishes, advice	Me gustaría un café.	I'd like a coffee.

Present Perfect: he comido

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	he / has / ha / hemos / han + past participle	¿Has estado en Perú?	Have you been to Peru?
Form	vosotros: habéis + past participle	¿Habéis terminado?	Have you finished?
Form	participle: hablar → hablado, comer → comido, vivir → vivido	Nunca he vivido sola.	I've never lived on my own.
Form	irregular participles: hacer → hecho, escribir → escrito, ver → visto	Ya he hecho la cena.	I've already made dinner.
Form	more irregular participles: decir → dicho, poner → puesto, volver → vuelto, abrir → abierto	¿Quién ha abierto la ventana?	Who has opened the window?
Use	experience up to now, with alguna vez and nunca	¿Has probado el mole alguna vez?	Have you ever tried mole?
Use	done or not yet done, with ya and todavía no	Todavía no he terminado.	I haven't finished yet.
Use	a time that includes now: hoy, esta mañana, este año	Esta mañana he ido al médico.	I went to the doctor this morning.
Use	a situation that goes on up to now	Siempre he vivido aquí.	I've always lived here.
Trap	object pronouns and no go before haber	No lo he visto.	I haven't seen it.
Trap	a finished time such as ayer takes the preterite	Ayer fui al cine.	I went to the cinema yesterday.

Preterite: comí

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablé / hablaste / habló / hablamos / hablaron	Ayer trabajé mucho.	I worked a lot yesterday.
Form	comer / vivir: comí / comiste / comió / comimos / comieron	Anoche comimos pizza.	We had pizza last night.
Form	vosotros: hablasteis / comisteis / vivisteis	¿Visteis el partido?	Did you see the match?
Form	ser and ir share one set of forms: fui / fue / fueron	El sábado fuimos al cine.	On Saturday we went to the cinema.
Form	a new stem, with no accent: tener → tuve, hacer → hice	Ayer tuve un examen.	I had an exam yesterday.
B1Form	spelling changes in yo: buscar → busqué, llegar → llegué, empezar → empecé	El lunes empecé a trabajar.	On Monday I started work.
B1Form	stem-changing -ir verbs change in él and ellos: pedir → pidió, dormir → durmió	El niño durmió toda la noche.	The child slept all night.
Use	an action finished at a stated past time	Ana nació en 2001.	Ana was born in 2001.
Use	a chain of events, one after another	Llegué, cené y me acosté.	I got home, had dinner and went to bed.
B1Use	a whole period that is over, with its length	Viví tres años en Quito.	I lived in Quito for three years.
Trap	the accent marks the past: hablo ≠ habló	Ayer Ana habló conmigo.	Ana talked to me yesterday.
Trap	fui / fue / vi / dio have no written accent	Te vi ayer.	I saw you yesterday.

Imperfect: comía

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaba / hablabas / hablaba / hablábamos / hablaban	Antes trabajaba en un banco.	I used to work in a bank.
Form	comer / vivir: comía / comías / comía / comíamos / comían	De niña vivía en el campo.	As a child I lived in the countryside.
Form	vosotros: hablabais / comíais / vivíais	¿Dónde vivíais antes?	Where did you live before?
Form	irregular: ser → era, ir → iba, ver → veía	La casa era pequeña.	The house was small.
Use	a description of people, things, places and time	Mi abuelo tenía una casa grande.	My grandfather had a big house.
Use	a habit in the past	Todos los días iba al colegio en bus.	I went to school by bus every day.
B1Use	an action in progress when something else happened	Cuando llegué, llovía.	When I arrived, it was raining.
B1Use	a polite request with quería	Quería un café, por favor.	I'd like a coffee, please.
Form	hay → había, singular for every number	Había muchos niños.	There were a lot of children.
Trap	yo and él share one form: yo trabajaba, él trabajaba	Ella cocinaba y yo limpiaba.	She did the cooking and I did the cleaning.
Trap	every ía form and hablábamos carry an accent	Siempre hablábamos en inglés.	We always spoke English.

Preterite or Imperfect

Point	Rule	Example	English
Preterite	a finished event: what happened	Ayer comí paella.	I had paella yesterday.
Imperfect	the scene: how things were	La paella estaba muy rica.	The paella was delicious.
Preterite	one time, or a stated number of times	El verano pasado fui tres veces a la playa.	Last summer I went to the beach three times.
Imperfect	a habit, with no number	Cada verano iba a la playa.	I went to the beach every summer.
B1Both	the action going on in the imperfect, the event in the preterite	Yo dormía cuando sonó el teléfono.	I was sleeping when the phone rang.
B1Both	estaba + gerund for an action in progress	Estábamos cenando cuando llegó Pedro.	We were having dinner when Pedro arrived.
B1Both	a whole event judged: fue; a description: era	El viaje fue genial. / El hotel era bonito.	The trip was great. / The hotel was nice.
B1Meaning	conocí is meeting someone; conocía is knowing them	Conocí a Laura en una fiesta.	I met Laura at a party.
B1Meaning	supe is finding out; sabía is knowing	Supe la noticia por la radio.	I found out the news on the radio.
B1Trap	a period with its length, now over, takes the preterite	Estuve dos horas en el banco.	I was at the bank for two hours.
Trap	a stage of life is the scene: cuando era niño	Cuando era niño, vivía en Cali.	When I was a child, I lived in Cali.

Present Perfect or Preterite

Point	Rule	Example	English
Preterite	a finished time: ayer, el año pasado, hace dos años	El año pasado viajé a Chile.	Last year I travelled to Chile.
Perfect	experience up to now: alguna vez, nunca	¿Has estado alguna vez en Chile?	Have you ever been to Chile?
Perfect	a situation that goes on up to now	Siempre he vivido aquí.	I've always lived here.
Perfect	a time that includes now: hoy, esta semana, este año	Hoy he comido paella.	I had paella today.
Preterite	a finished action, today too: hoy, esta semana, este año	Hoy comí paella.	I had paella today.
Perfect	ya and something just said or done	¿Ya has terminado?	Have you finished yet?
Preterite	ya and something just said or done	¿Ya terminaste?	Have you finished yet?
B1Both	nunca up to now takes the perfect; nunca in a finished period takes the preterite	Nunca he estado allí en mi vida. / Nunca estuve allí en aquella época.	I've never been there in my life. / I was never there at that time.
Trap	ayer never takes the perfect	Ayer vi a Juan.	I saw Juan yesterday.

Past Perfect: había comido

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	había / habías / había / habíamos / habían + past participle	Ya habíamos cenado.	We had already had dinner.
Form	vosotros: habíais + past participle	¿Habíais estado antes en Madrid?	Had you been to Madrid before?
Form	the participles of the present perfect: hecho, dicho, roto	¿Quién había roto la ventana?	Who had broken the window?
Use	an action before another past action	Cuando llegué, el tren ya había salido.	When I arrived, the train had already left.
Use	experience up to a past moment, with nunca	Nunca había comido ceviche antes.	I had never eaten ceviche before.
Use	the cause of a past situation	Estaba cansada porque había trabajado mucho.	She was tired because she had worked a lot.
Use	what someone said about an earlier action	Me dijo que había perdido el tren.	She told me she had missed the train.
Trap	pronouns and no go before había	Ya lo había leído.	I had already read it.

Irregular Verbs Table

Infinitive	Present, yo	Preterite	Participle
ser	soy	fui	sido
ir	voy	fui	ido
estar	estoy	estuve	estado
tener	tengo	tuve	tenido
hacer	hago	hice	hecho
ver	veo	vi	visto
B1decir	digo	dije	dicho
B1poner	pongo	puse	puesto
B1poder	puedo	pude	podido
B1querer	quiero	quise	querido
B1pedir	pido	pedí / pidió	pedido
B1conducir	conduzco	conduje	conducido

Future and conditional

Future with Ir a: voy a comer

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	voy / vas / va / vamos / van + a + infinitive	Mañana voy a trabajar.	I'm going to work tomorrow.
Form	vosotros: vais + a + infinitive	¿Qué vais a hacer?	What are you going to do?
Use	plans and intentions	Este verano vamos a viajar a Perú.	We're going to travel to Peru this summer.
Negative	no goes before ir	No voy a salir esta noche.	I'm not going to go out tonight.
Use	a prediction from what you see now	Mira esas nubes: va a llover.	Look at those clouds: it's going to rain.
Use	something about to happen	¡Cuidado, te vas a caer!	Careful, you're going to fall!
Invitation	vamos a with an infinitive: let's	¡Vamos a bailar!	Let's dance!
Pronouns	before ir, or joined to the infinitive	Te voy a llamar. / Voy a llamarte.	I'm going to call you. / I'm going to call you.
Trap	the a never drops	Voy a comprar pan.	I'm going to buy bread.

Simple Future: comeré

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaré / hablarás / hablará / hablaremos / hablarán	Mañana te llamaré.	I'll call you tomorrow.
Form	vosotros: hablaréis / comeréis / viviréis	¿Vendréis a la boda?	Will you come to the wedding?
Irregular stems	tendré / pondré / saldré / vendré / podré	No podré ir.	I won't be able to go.
Irregular stems	haré / diré / querré / sabré / habrá	Lo haré mañana.	I'll do it tomorrow.
Use	a prediction	Mañana lloverá en el norte.	It will rain in the north tomorrow.
Use	a promise	No se lo diré a nadie.	I won't tell anyone.
Use	a guess about now	¿Dónde está Ana? Estará en casa.	Where's Ana? She's probably at home.
Condition	si with the present, then the future	Si llueve, nos quedaremos en casa.	If it rains, we'll stay at home.
Trap	habrá stays singular	Mañana habrá mucha gente.	There will be a lot of people tomorrow.
Trap	never the future after si in a condition	Si tengo tiempo, iré.	If I have time, I'll go.

Conditional: comería

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hablaría / hablarías / hablaríamos / hablarían	Viviría en la playa.	I'd live by the beach.
Form	vosotros: hablaríais / comeríais / viviríais	¿Vendríais conmigo?	Would you come with me?
Irregular stems	the stems of the future: tendría / podría / haría / diría	Haría cualquier cosa por ti.	I'd do anything for you.
Use	a polite request	¿Podría cerrar la ventana?	Could you close the window?
Use	a wish	Me gustaría ir a Cuba.	I'd like to go to Cuba.
Use	advice: deberías	Deberías descansar.	You should rest.
Trap	every form carries í	Comería algo.	I'd eat something.
Trap	gustar keeps its pattern: me gustaría	Nos gustaría verte.	We'd like to see you.

Imperative and verb phrases

Affirmative Imperative

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	tú: the él form of the present	Habla más despacio, por favor.	Speak more slowly, please.
Form	usted: -ar verbs end in e, -er and -ir verbs in a	Pase, por favor.	Come in, please.
Form	ustedes: the usted form with n	Abran los libros.	Open your books.
Form	vosotros: the r of the infinitive becomes d	Abrid los libros.	Open your books.
Irregular verbs	tú: di / haz / pon / sal / ten / ven / ve / sé	Ven aquí.	Come here.
B1Irregular verbs	usted: esté / sepa, from estar and saber	Esté tranquilo, señor.	Don't worry, sir.
Pronouns	object and reflexive pronouns join the end of the verb	Cómpralo. / Siéntate.	Buy it. / Sit down.
Use	instructions, directions and requests	Sigue por esta calle y gira a la derecha.	Go along this street and turn right.
Use	invitations and offers	Pasa y siéntate.	Come in and sit down.
Fixed forms	mira / oye call for attention; perdona / perdone say sorry	Oye, ¿tienes un lápiz?	Hey, have you got a pencil?
Trap	the tú imperative has no final s: hablas → habla	Escucha, por favor.	Listen, please.

Negative Imperative

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	tú: -ar verbs end in es, -er and -ir verbs in as	No hables tan alto.	Don't speak so loudly.
Form	usted / ustedes: the affirmative form after no	No fume aquí, por favor.	Please don't smoke here.
Form	vosotros: -ar verbs end in éis, -er and -ir verbs in áis	No habléis tan alto.	Don't speak so loudly.
Irregular verbs	the stem of the yo form: no digas / no hagas / no vengas	No digas eso.	Don't say that.
Pronouns	before the verb, after no	No lo toques.	Don't touch it.
Use	prohibitions and warnings	No toques el horno: está caliente.	Don't touch the oven: it's hot.
Use	advice and reassurance	No te preocupes.	Don't worry.
Trap	the negative never takes the affirmative form: ven → no vengas	No vengas tarde.	Don't come late.
Trap	the pronoun moves before the verb: siéntate → no te sientes	No te sientes ahí.	Don't sit there.

Can, Must, Should: poder, saber, deber, tener que, hay que

Point	Rule	Example	English
Permission	¿Puedo + infinitive: asking if something is allowed	¿Puedo abrir la ventana?	Can I open the window?
Requests	¿Puedes + infinitive: asking someone to do something	¿Puedes repetir, por favor?	Can you repeat that, please?
Skills	saber + infinitive: something someone has learned to do	Sé nadar.	I can swim.
Ability now	poder: whether someone is able to do something now	Hoy no puedo salir.	I can't go out today.
Obligation	tener que + infinitive: what one person needs to do	Tengo que trabajar el sábado.	I have to work on Saturday.
Obligation	hay que + infinitive: what everyone needs to do, with no subject	Hay que pagar antes de entrar.	You have to pay before going in.
Pronouns	before the conjugated verb, or at the end of the infinitive	Lo tengo que hacer. / Tengo que hacerlo.	I have to do it. / I have to do it.
B1Duty	deber + infinitive: what is right or required	Debes decir la verdad.	You must tell the truth.
B1Advice	deberías + infinitive: a piece of advice	Deberías descansar.	You should rest.
Trap	tener takes que before the infinitive	Tengo que irme.	I have to go.
B1Trap	no tener que: not necessary; no deber: mustn't, as a duty or advice; no poder: not allowed	No tienes que venir. / No debes mentir. / No puedes fumar aquí.	You don't have to come. / You mustn't lie. / You can't smoke here.

Verb Phrases: acabar de, volver a, soler

Form	Meaning	Example	English
acabar de + infinitive	something that has just happened	Acabo de llegar.	I've just arrived.
empezar a + infinitive	the start of an action	Empiezo a trabajar a las ocho.	I start work at eight.
volver a + infinitive	an action again	Vuelve a llover.	It's raining again.
B1dejar de + infinitive	the end of a habit or an action	Dejé de fumar el año pasado.	I stopped smoking last year.
B1soler + infinitive	a habit	Suelo levantarme temprano.	I usually get up early.
B1seguir + gerund	an action that goes on	Sigo viviendo en Lima.	I still live in Lima.
B1ponerse a + infinitive	a sudden start	El niño se puso a llorar.	The child started crying.
B1estar a punto de + infinitive	something about to happen	El tren está a punto de salir.	The train is about to leave.
Trap	the preposition stays: de, a	Empiezo a entender.	I'm beginning to understand.
B1Trap	seguir takes the gerund	Sigo estudiando.	I'm still studying.

The subjunctive

Present Subjunctive: Forms

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	hablar: hable / hables / hablemos / hablen	Quiero que hables con él.	I want you to talk to him.
Form	comer: coma / comas / comamos / coman	Espero que comas bien.	I hope you eat well.
Form	vivir: viva / vivas / vivamos / vivan	Ojalá vivamos cerca.	I hope we live close by.
Form	vosotros: habléis / comáis / viváis	Quiero que habléis con él.	I want you to talk to him.
The yo stem	tengo → tenga, hago → haga	Es importante que hagas ejercicio.	It's important that you exercise.
Stem changes	as in the present: quiera / pueda / pida	Ojalá pueda ir.	I hope I can go.
Irregular	sea / vaya / esté / dé / sepa / haya	Espero que sea verdad.	I hope it's true.
Spelling	the sound stays: busque / llegue / empiece	Te llamo cuando llegue.	I'll call you when I arrive.
Trap	estar carries a written accent: esté, estés	Espero que estés bien.	I hope you're well.
Trap	-ir verbs change in nosotros too: pidamos	Es mejor que pidamos pizza.	We'd better order pizza.

Subjunctive for Wishes, Doubt and Opinions

Point	Rule	Example	English
Wishes	querer / esperar / preferir / necesitar with que	Espero que estés bien.	I hope you're well.
ojalá	a hope, always with the subjunctive	Ojalá no llueva.	I hope it doesn't rain.
Feelings	me alegra / me molesta / me da miedo with que	Me alegra que estés aquí.	I'm glad you're here.
Doubt	no creo que / no pienso que / dudo que	No creo que venga.	I don't think she'll come.
Judgements	es importante que / es mejor que / es normal que	Es importante que duermas bien.	It's important that you sleep well.
One subject	the infinitive, with no que	Quiero descansar.	I want to rest.
Belief	creo que and pienso que take the indicative	Creo que viene.	I think she's coming.
Trap	“I want you to” is quiero que with the subjunctive	Quiero que vengas.	I want you to come.
Trap	a fact stated as true takes the indicative: es verdad que	Es verdad que es caro.	It's true that it's expensive.

Subjunctive after cuando, para que, antes de que

Point	Rule	Example	English
cuando	a future event: subjunctive	Cuando tenga dinero, viajaré.	When I have money, I'll travel.
cuando	a habit or the past: indicative	Cuando tengo tiempo, leo.	When I have time, I read.
hasta que	the same as cuando	Espera aquí hasta que vuelva.	Wait here until I come back.
después de que	a future event: subjunctive	Cenaremos después de que lleguen los niños.	We'll have dinner after the children arrive.
antes de que	always the subjunctive	Vámonos antes de que llueva.	Let's go before it rains.
para que	a purpose with another subject: subjunctive	Te lo explico para que lo entiendas.	I'll explain it so that you understand it.
para	a purpose with the same subject: infinitive	Estudio para aprender.	I study to learn.
antes de / después de	the same subject: infinitive	Me lavo las manos antes de comer.	I wash my hands before eating.
Trap	never the future after cuando	Cuando sea mayor, seré médico.	When I grow up, I'll be a doctor.
Trap	the question word cuándo takes the indicative	¿Cuándo vienes?	When are you coming?

Prepositions

Prepositions of Place and Time

Point	Rule	Example	English
en	where something is: in, on, at	El libro está en la mesa.	The book is on the table.
a	where something goes: to	Voy a la playa.	I'm going to the beach.
de	where something comes from, and whose it is	Soy de Colombia.	I'm from Colombia.
al / del	a + el = al / de + el = del	Voy al cine. / Salgo del trabajo.	I'm going to the cinema. / I leave work.
A2Position	encima de / debajo de / delante de / detrás de / enfrente de	El gato está debajo de la cama.	The cat is under the bed.
al lado de / cerca de / lejos de / entre	next to, near, far from, between	Vivo cerca del centro.	I live near the centre.
Time	a a clock time; en a month, a season, a year	a las tres / en julio	at three / in July
Days	no preposition: el lunes, el 5 de mayo	Te veo el lunes.	See you on Monday.
de … a	from a start to an end in time	Trabajo de nueve a cinco.	I work from nine to five.
A2desde … hasta	from a start to an end, in time or space	Caminamos desde el parque hasta el río.	We walk from the park to the river.
A2Transport	en and the vehicle; a pie on foot	Voy en tren. / Voy a pie.	I go by train. / I go on foot.
con / sin	with, without	Un café con leche y sin azúcar.	A coffee with milk and without sugar.
Trap	llegar takes a: the place you reach	Llego a Lima mañana.	I arrive in Lima tomorrow.

Por and Para

Point	Rule	Example	English
para + infinitive	purpose: in order to	Estudio para aprender.	I study to learn.
A2para	destination: towards	Salgo para Lima.	I'm leaving for Lima.
A2para	recipient: who it is for	Este regalo es para ti.	This present is for you.
A2para	deadline: by when	El trabajo es para el lunes.	The work is for Monday.
B1para mí	opinion: in my view	Para mí, es fácil.	For me, it's easy.
A2por	cause: because of	Gracias por todo.	Thanks for everything.
A2por	route: through, along, around	Paseo por el parque.	I walk through the park.
A2por	means: by	Hablamos por teléfono.	We talk on the phone.
A2por	exchange: in return for	Te cambio mi libro por tu revista.	I'll swap my book for your magazine.
por	a part of the day	Trabajo por la mañana.	I work in the morning.
A2por	per	dos veces por semana	twice a week

Sentence building

Questions and Negatives

Point	Rule	Example	English
Question marks	¿ opens and ? closes every question	¿Hablas inglés?	Do you speak English?
Negative	no goes right before the verb	No hablo inglés.	I don't speak English.
Answers	the first no answers, the second makes the verb negative	¿Tienes hermanos? — No, no tengo hermanos.	Have you got any brothers or sisters? — No, I haven't got any brothers or sisters.
Question words	qué / quién / dónde / cómo / cuánto / por qué open the question, with a written accent	¿Dónde vives?	Where do you live?
Agreeing	también after a statement, tampoco after a negative	No hablo francés. — Yo tampoco.	I don't speak French. — Neither do I.
Prepositions	the preposition comes first, before the question word	¿Con quién trabajas?	Who do you work with?
A2Time	cuándo asks about time	¿Cuándo empiezas las vacaciones?	When do your holidays start?
A2Choice	two options joined by o	¿Prefieres té o café?	Do you prefer tea or coffee?
A2Double negative	no before the verb, nunca / nada / nadie after it	No he estado nunca en México.	I've never been to Mexico.
A2Exclamations	qué + adjective or adverb, between ¡ and !	¡Qué bonito!	How beautiful!
B1Which	qué before a noun, cuál alone	¿Qué libro quieres? / ¿Cuál quieres?	Which book do you want? / Which one do you want?
A2Trap	nunca before the verb takes no no	Nunca como carne.	I never eat meat.

Linkers

Point	Rule	Example	English
Adding	y joins two words or two clauses	Soy americana y vivo en Los Ángeles.	I'm American and I live in Los Angeles.
Choice	o offers a choice	¿Eres americano o inglés?	Are you American or English?
Contrast	pero sets two facts against each other, after a comma	Soy alemán, pero vivo en Suiza.	I'm German, but I live in Switzerland.
Negative	after a negative, ni adds the next item	No me gusta el otoño ni el invierno.	I don't like autumn or winter.
Reason	porque gives a reason, after the main clause	Estoy en España porque me gusta.	I'm in Spain because I like it.
A2Spelling	y → e before i, o → u before o	padre e hijo / siete u ocho	father and son / seven or eight
A2Result	por eso opens the result	Está enfermo. Por eso no ha venido.	He's ill. That's why he hasn't come.
A2Time	cuando with the present for what usually happens	Cuando llueve, me quedo en casa.	When it rains, I stay at home.
A2Order	primero / luego / después put actions in order	Primero desayuno, luego me ducho y después salgo.	First I have breakfast, then I have a shower and after that I go out.
B1Reason first	como gives the reason before the main clause	Como no venías, empecé a cenar.	As you weren't coming, I started dinner.
B1Contrast	aunque / sin embargo: a fact that goes against the other	Lo entiendo todo, aunque no hablo bien.	I understand everything, although I don't speak well.
B1Result	así que joins the result to the cause	No había entradas, así que no la vimos.	There were no tickets left, so we didn't see it.

Conditional Sentences

Point	Rule	Example	English
Form	si + present, then the present	Si quieres, puedes venir.	If you want, you can come.
Use	what usually happens when the condition holds	Si como mucho, me duele el estómago.	If I eat a lot, I get a stomach ache.
Comma	a comma follows the si clause when it comes first	Si llueve, no salgo. / No salgo si llueve.	If it rains, I don't go out. / I don't go out if it rains.
Spelling	si means if, sí with an accent means yes	Si quieres, vamos. / Sí, claro.	If you want, let's go. / Yes, of course.
B1Form	si + present, then the future	Si tengo tiempo, iré.	If I have time, I'll go.
B1Form	si + present, then the imperative	Si puedes, ayúdame.	If you can, help me.
B1Trap	never the future after si in a condition	Si viene Carlota, iremos al cine.	If Carlota comes, we'll go to the cinema.

Relative Clauses

Point	Rule	Example	English
Subject	que is the subject of the clause	Tengo una amiga que vive en Lima.	I've got a friend who lives in Lima.
Object	que is the object of the clause	La profesora que tengo es muy buena.	The teacher I've got is very good.
A2Tense	the clause takes the tense it needs	El libro que compré ayer es muy bueno.	The book I bought yesterday is very good.
B1People	after a preposition, quien for people	El chico con quien trabajo es de Chile.	The boy I work with is from Chile.
B1Places	aquí / allí + es donde: pointing to a place	Allí es donde vivo.	That's where I live.
Trap	que never drops	El libro que leo es interesante.	The book I'm reading is interesting.
B1Trap	right after a noun, people take que, not quien	El médico que vino ayer es muy simpático.	The doctor who came yesterday is very nice.

Reported Speech and Passive se

Point	Rule	Example	English
Reporting now	dice que: the same tense, the person changes	Dice que tiene hambre.	She says she's hungry.
Reporting the past	dijo que: a present becomes the imperfect	Dijo que tenía sueño.	He said he was sleepy.
Orders	dice que with the present subjunctive	Dice que te sientes.	She says you should sit down.
Questions	si for yes-no questions; question words stay, with their accent	Pregunta si vienes. / Me preguntó dónde vivía.	She's asking if you're coming. / He asked me where I lived.
Passive se	se with the verb agreeing with the thing	Se vende casa. / Se venden casas.	House for sale. / Houses for sale.
Impersonal se	se with a singular verb: people in general	En este restaurante se come muy bien.	You eat very well in this restaurant.
Trap	pronouns and possessives change with the speaker	Mi casa es pequeña. → Dice que su casa es pequeña.	My house is small. → She says her house is small.
Trap	a plural thing takes a plural verb: se venden	Aquí se hablan tres idiomas.	Three languages are spoken here.