Address, ellipsis, repetition, comparison, clarification and the rhetorical question give a thought force; each has its own construction and punctuation. The comparative takes three constructions: ніж + nominative, за + accusative, від + genitive: Він ви́щий, ніж я. Він ви́щий за мене́. Він ви́щий від мене́.
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
CheatsheetB2–C2
| Point | Rule | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Address | anywhere in the sentence, between commas | Прочита́йте, Ві́кторе, цю кни́жку. | Please, Viktor, read this book. | B2 |
| Ellipsis | an answer keeps only what is new | Щасли́вої доро́ги! — Дя́кую, і вам. | Have a good trip! — Thank you, you too. | B2 |
| Repetition | a doubled question word asks again | Окса́на ви́грала олімпіа́ду! — Хто-хто? | Oksana won the olympiad! — Who did you say? | B2 |
| Comparative | ніж, за or від | Окса́на моло́дша, ніж я. / Окса́на моло́дша за мене́. / Окса́на моло́дша від мене́. | Oksana is younger than I am. / Oksana is younger than me. / Oksana is younger than me. | B2 |
| Figurative comparison | як or мов and an image | Вода́ чи́ста, як сльоза́. | The water is clear as a tear. | B2 |
| Clarifying element | an apposition stands in the same case | Мій брат, лі́кар, живе́ в Оде́сі. | My brother, a doctor, lives in Odesa. | B2 |
| Rhetorical question | the answer is obvious, and nobody waits for it | Хто ж не лю́бить рі́дне мі́сто? | Who doesn't love their hometown? | C1 |
| Text | a question opens, repetition stresses | Що ми зна́ємо про рі́дне мі́сто? | What do we know about our hometown? | C1 |
| Address | the adjective is in the nominative, the noun in the vocative | Шано́вний па́не го́лово! | Dear Mr Chairman! | C2 |
| Confirmation question | чи не так after a statement | Ми всі хо́чемо ми́ру, чи не так?.. | We all want peace, don't we?.. | C2 |
| Trap | від takes the genitive | Окса́на моло́дша від мене́. | Oksana is younger than me. | B2 |
| Trap | a dash stands in place of the omitted verb | Я люблю́ я́блука, а Макси́м — гру́ші. | I like apples, and Maksym, pears. | C2 |
OverviewB2
- An address, an apposition and a comparative phrase in the middle of a sentence are set off by commas on both sides: Дя́кую, Окса́но, за допомо́гу. / Андрі́й, мій сусі́д, ча́сто гуля́є тут. / Дити́на, мов а́нгел, спить.Thank you, Oksana, for your help. / Andrii, my neighbour, often walks here. / The child, like an angel, is asleep.
AddressB2–C2
| Place | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| at the start of the sentence | Ві́кторе, прочита́йте цю кни́жку. | Viktor, please read this book. | B2 |
| in the middle of the sentence | Прочита́йте, Ві́кторе, цю кни́жку. | Please, Viktor, read this book. | B2 |
| at the end of the sentence | Прочита́йте цю кни́жку, Ві́кторе. | Please read this book, Viktor. | B2 |
- Forms of address: Vocative Case.
C2
| To whom | Formula | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| to listeners in a hall | Па́ні і пано́ве! | Ladies and gentlemen! | C2 |
| to the chair of a meeting | Шано́вний па́не го́лово! | Dear Mr Chairman! | C2 |
| to a friend | Дороги́й дру́же! | Dear friend! | C2 |
C2
- An adjective in an address stands in the nominative, the noun in the vocative: Шано́вна па́ні Окса́но!Dear Ms Oksana!
EllipsisB2–C2
| Omission | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| the answer leaves out the words of the wish | Щасли́вої доро́ги! — Дя́кую, і вам. | Have a good trip! — Thank you, you too. | B2 |
| the second part leaves out what is already said | І́гор іде́ на ле́кцію, і О́ля тако́ж збира́ється. | Ihor is going to the lecture, and Olia is also planning to. | B2 |
| in a chain of replies only the new remains | О́ля вже поверну́лася з Ха́ркова? — Так. — А коли́? — У субо́ту. | Has Olia already come back from Kharkiv? — Yes. — And when? — On Saturday. | C1 |
| the adverbial changes, the verb is shared | Ми вже були́ в музе́ї, і в теа́трі тако́ж. | We have already been to the museum, and to the theatre too. | C1 |
| the verb is omitted, and a dash stands in its place | Я люблю́ я́блука, а Макси́м — гру́ші. | I like apples, and Maksym, pears. | C2 |
| the whole predicate is omitted, and the subject changes | Я вже прочита́в цю кни́жку, і Ві́ктор тако́ж. | I have already read this book, and Viktor has too. | C2 |
- The conjunctions а and і: Conjunctions.
RepetitionB2–C2
| Form | Meaning | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| хто-хто, що-що | asks again in surprise | Окса́на ви́грала олімпіа́ду! — Хто-хто? | Oksana won the olympiad! — Who did you say? | B2 |
| де-де, коли́‑коли́ | asks again about place or time | Зустрі́немося бі́ля фонта́на. — Де-де? | Let's meet by the fountain. — Where did you say? | C1 |
| куди́‑куди́, а… | what is named is certain; the rest is in question | Куди́‑куди́, а до Льво́ва я пої́ду обов’язко́во. | I may not go anywhere else, but I will certainly go to Lviv. | C2 |
ComparisonB2–C2
| Comparative | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ніж + nominative | Окса́на моло́дша, ніж я. | Oksana is younger than I am. | B2 |
| за + accusative | Окса́на моло́дша за мене́. | Oksana is younger than me. | B2 |
| від + genitive | Окса́на моло́дша від мене́. | Oksana is younger than me. | B2 |
| an adverb in the same constructions | Вона́ бі́гає шви́дше, ніж я. / Вона́ бі́гає шви́дше за мене́. / Вона́ бі́гає шви́дше від мене́. | She runs faster than I do. / She runs faster than me. / She runs faster than me. | C2 |
- Comparative forms: Comparatives and Superlatives.
| Figurative comparison | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| як after an adjective | Вода́ в о́зері чи́ста, як сльоза́. | The water in the lake is clear as a tear. | B2 |
| мов after an adjective | Ліс стої́ть ти́хо, мов зачаро́ваний. | The forest stands quiet, as if enchanted. | B2 |
| як after a verb | Маши́на працю́є, як годи́нник. | The machine runs like clockwork. | C1 |
| мов after a verb | Хло́пчик стриба́є, мов м’яч. | The little boy bounces like a ball. | C1 |
| the image is a noun, sometimes expanded | Вона́ висо́ка, як топо́ля. / Її́ го́лос затремті́в, мов лист на вітрі́. | She is tall, like a poplar. / Her voice trembled like a leaf in the wind. | C2 |
Clarifying elementsB2–C2
| Device | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| там, де and a subordinate clause | Ми зустрі́лися там, де коли́сь стоя́в стари́й млин. | We met where an old mill once stood. | B2 |
| an apposition after a noun | Мій брат, лі́кар, живе́ в Оде́сі. | My brother, a doctor, lives in Odesa. | B2 |
| a place word and the group of words that clarifies it | Ми зупини́лися там, бі́ля старо́го мо́сту, і чека́ли дру́зів. | We stopped there, by the old bridge, and waited for our friends. | C1 |
| an expanded apposition | Іва́н Франко́, відо́мий письме́нник і вче́ний, жив у Льво́ві. | Ivan Franko, a famous writer and scholar, lived in Lviv. | C1 |
| an apposition after я in an official text | Я, Окса́на Ковале́нко, студе́нтка дру́гого ку́рсу, прошу́ нада́ти мені́ гурто́житок. | I, Oksana Kovalenko, a second-year student, ask to be given a place in a hall of residence. | C2 |
- An apposition stands in the same case as the word it clarifies: Я розмовля́в із Андрі́єм, на́шим сусі́дом.I talked to Andrii, our neighbour.
Rhetorical questionC1–C2
| Form | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| хто ж: the answer is obvious | Хто ж не лю́бить рі́дне мі́сто? | Who doesn't love their hometown? | C1 |
| хто б and the conditional: surprise | І хто б міг це передба́чити? | And who could have foreseen this? | C1 |
| чи не так after a statement | Ми всі хо́чемо ми́ру, чи не так?.. | We all want peace, don't we?.. | C2 |
| Як Ви вважа́єте: a polite question to the listener | Чи справедли́ве це рі́шення? Як Ви вважа́єте? | Is this decision fair? What do you think? | C2 |
- Questions and negatives: Questions and Negation.
Devices in a textC1
| Device | What it does | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| a question at the start | opens the topic | Що ми зна́ємо про рі́дне мі́сто? | What do we know about our hometown? | C1 |
| a question in the middle | leads to a new thought | Що ж ста́лося да́лі? | So what happened next? | C1 |
| a question at the end | leaves the reader with a thought | Чи не час нам заду́матися? | Isn't it time for us to stop and think? | C1 |
| repetition | stresses the main point | Ми ві́рили. Ми ві́рили в перемо́гу. Ми ві́рили, коли́ всі мовча́ли. | We believed. We believed in victory. We believed when everyone was silent. | C1 |
Typical errorsB2–C2
| Wrong | Right | Rule | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Окса́на моло́дша від я. | Окса́на моло́дша від мене́. | від takes the genitive | B2 |
| Окса́на моло́дша за я. | Окса́на моло́дша за мене́. | за takes the accusative | B2 |
| Вода́ чи́ста, ніж сльоза́. | Вода́ чи́ста, як сльоза́. | ніж follows a comparative; an image is introduced by як or мов | B2 |
| Я люблю́ я́блука, а Макси́м гру́ші. | Я люблю́ я́блука, а Макси́м — гру́ші. | a dash stands in place of the omitted verb | C2 |
| Шано́вний па́не голова́! | Шано́вний па́не го́лово! | a noun in an address takes the vocative | C2 |