Cheatsheet C2

Foundations

Connected Speech and Intonation

Point	Rule	Example
Weak forms	function words are weak inside a clause, strong at its end	a cup of tea /ə ˈkʌp əv ˈtiː/
Sentence stress	content words carry the stress; function words stay weak	We want to go to the park.
Linking	a final consonant joins the next vowel; /r/, /j/ and /w/ link vowels	turn off /tɜː.nɒf/
Elision and assimilation	t and d drop between consonants; a final consonant matches the next	next day /neks deɪ/ · ten boys /tem bɔɪz/
Intonation	falls for statements and wh-questions, rises for yes-no questions	Where do you live? ↘ / Do you live here? ↗
Contrastive stress	stress the word that carries the contrast	I didn't say he stole her money.
C1Informal reductions	you merges with d and t; gonna for going to; h drops	did you /ˈdɪdʒuː/ · going to gonna
C1Attitude	the same words change meaning with the tune	Really? ↗ / Really? ↘↗
C1Focus	new information takes the stress; given words lose it	Who broke it? — Tom broke it.
C1Trap	statements fall; a final rise sounds like a question	I live in Leeds. ↘
C2Key and turns	high key engages, low key closes; falls end turns, rises hold them	That is all from me. ↘
C2Stress shift	a stress moves earlier before another stressed syllable	thirteen but thirteen men

Nouns and determiners

Articles: a, an, the

Point	Rule	Example
Form	a before a consonant sound, an before a vowel sound	a book / an apple
a / an	one thing, a job, or a first mention	She's a doctor.
the	a thing we both know, or already mentioned	There's a cat. The cat is black.
the	the only one; superlatives and ordinals	the sun / the best / the first time
A2the	rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges	the Thames / the Atlantic / the Alps
A2the	countries with a plural name, Kingdom or States	the UK / the USA / the Netherlands
B1the	the + adjective means a group of people	the rich / the young
No article	plural and uncountable nouns in general; meals; names	I like dogs. / We have lunch at two.
A2No article	home, work, school, bed; transport after by	go home / at work / by bus
B1No article	hospital, prison, church for their purpose; the for the building	He's in hospital.
B2Generic	plurals and abstract nouns take none; the names a species	Dogs are loyal. / The tiger is endangered.
B2Places	the for island groups, deserts, hotels, ships; none for lakes, streets	the Sahara / Lake Garda
C1Names	the for a family or a band; none for airports	the Smiths / Heathrow
C1Abstract noun	an adjective lets it take a / an	a deep understanding
C2Headlines	articles drop in headlines, notes and labels	Man bites dog / Remove lid before use.
C2Formal generic	the + singular noun names a whole class	the individual / the state
Trap	the first sound decides, not the letter	a university / an hour
Trap	most countries take no article	I live in Spain.

Noun Phrases and Nominalisation

Point	Rule	Example
Slots	predeterminer, determiner, number, adjective, noun modifier, head noun	all the other ten new bus drivers
Order	ordinal before cardinal; all, both and half before the determiner	the first three days / all my friends
After the noun	prepositional phrase, to-infinitive, that-clause, of-phrase, apposition	a chance to win / the house on the hill
Before the noun	singular noun modifier, -ing or -ed adjective; three at most	a bus ticket / a broken window
As the head	an adjective, one or mine can stand for the whole phrase	The injured were treated quickly. / I'll take the red one.
C1Nominalisation	a noun names the action; its object follows with of	They destroyed the city. → the destruction of the city
C1Light verb	a general verb carries the action of the noun	make a decision / carry out an analysis
C1Shell noun	a noun sums up an earlier clause	The company cut prices. This move surprised its rivals.
C1Register	verbs in speech, nouns in formal and academic writing	We analysed (US: analyzed) the data. ≠ An analysis of the data was performed.
C2Headline stack	the last noun is the head; the others modify	Government job cuts plan row
C2Of and a noun	of and an abstract noun do the work of an adjective	a man of means / a matter of urgency
Trap	the unit stays singular before a noun	a five-day course

Verbs

Irregular Verbs Table

Pattern	Base form	Past simple	Past participle
All three forms are the same	put	put	put
-ought / -aught	buy	bought	bought
Past and participle end in -d	make	made	made
B1Final -d becomes -t	build	built	built
A2Long vowel shortens, -t added	keep	kept	kept
/iː/ shortens to /e/	meet	met	met
Vowel changes, past = participle	sit	sat	sat
Participle = base form	come	came	come
i → a → u	drink	drank	drunk
Participle in -en	take	took	taken
participle in -n / -ne	go	went	gone
Use	—	finished actions: I went to Madrid.	after have: I have gone there.
B2Two accepted forms	learn	learnt / learned	learnt / learned
B2Confusing pairs	lie / lay	lay / laid	lain / laid
B2A compound takes the forms of its base verb	undertake	undertook	undertaken
C1Less frequent verbs follow the same patterns	weave	wove	woven
C2An old participle survives as an adjective	sink	sank	sunk / sunken

Phrasal Verbs

Point	Rule	Example
Phrasal verb	verb + a particle; the particle gives the verb a new meaning	I'm looking for my keys.
Separable	a noun goes before or after the particle	Turn off the light. / Turn the light off.
Inseparable	the object always follows the particle	Look after the baby.
Daily routine	wake up, get up, put on, take off, turn on	She puts on her coat.
Going and coming	go out, come in, come back, pick up	I pick up the children at three.
Looking and finding out	look for, look after, look up, find out, fill in	Look up the word.
B1Continuing and stopping	carry on, run out of, get on with, look forward to	We ran out of milk.
B2Three-part verbs	verb + particle + preposition; the object follows the preposition	I can't put up with the noise.
C1Nouns from phrasal verbs	a noun stresses the first part: breakdown	The car had a breakdown.
C2Formal prose	a one-word verb often replaces the phrasal verb	carry out = conduct
Trap	a separable verb takes a pronoun in the middle	Turn it off.
B1Trap	look forward to takes a noun or the -ing form	I look forward to seeing you.

Gerund vs Infinitive

Form	Rule	Example
verb + -ing	after enjoy, finish, mind, avoid, suggest	I enjoy cooking.
verb + to + V	after want, decide, hope, plan, need	They decided to move.
want / need / would like + person + to + V	a person can come before to	I want you to come.
preposition + -ing	after a preposition: interested in, before, without	Wash your hands before eating.
-ing as the subject	the -ing form works as a noun	Swimming is good for you.
look forward to + -ing	to is a preposition here	I look forward to seeing you.
stop + -ing / to + V	-ing means he quit; to means he paused in order to smoke	He stopped smoking. / He stopped to smoke.
remember + -ing / to + V	-ing recalls the action; to means do not forget	I remember locking it. / Remember to lock it.
try + -ing / to + V	-ing tests it; to makes an effort	Try adding salt. / I tried to open it.
Either form	like, love, hate, prefer: almost the same meaning	I like swimming. / I like to swim.
B2verb + person + to + V	after advise, tell, allow, warn, force	She told me to wait.
B2make / let / have + person + V	the base verb follows, with no to	The film made me cry.
B2Fixed -ing patterns	no use, no point in, can't help, object to	It's no use complaining.
B2Perfect and passive forms	to have done, having done, to be done, being done	I'm glad to have met you.
B2wh-word + to + V	after know, ask, tell, show, decide	I don't know what to do.
C1seem / appear / tend + to + V	also to be doing and to have done	She appears to have been crying.
C1Bare infinitive after fixed phrases	had better, would rather, rather than, why not	You had better leave now.
C2Formal patterns	only to + V shows an unexpected result	He arrived only to find it closed.

Modal verbs

May and Might

Point	Rule	Example
Form	subject + might / may + base verb; one form for every subject	She might come.
Negative	might not / may not	He might not come.
Possibility	something possible, now or in the future	She might be at home. / We might go to the beach.
Might or may	might sounds a little less sure	It might rain. / It may rain.
Possibility question	ask with think + will	Do you think it will rain?
B1Permission	May + subject + base verb asks; may allows in formal rules	May I use your phone? / Guests may use the pool until 10.
B1Certainty	will is sure, probably very likely, may / might possible	She will come. / She'll probably come. / She may come.
B2Present deduction	must be says it is true; can't be says it is false	The lights are on. She must be home.
B2Likely	be likely to and may well say it is quite probable	She is likely to win.
C1Concession	may admits a point before but	He may be rich, but he isn't happy.
C2Wishes	May opens a wish or a formal request	May you be happy.
Trap	may be follows the subject; maybe starts a clause	He may be late. / Maybe he is late.

Will and Shall

Point	Rule	Example
Assumption	will guesses what is true now, from what the speaker knows	That'll be Tom at the door. / She won't be home yet.
Habit	what is always or typically true	Oil will float on water. / He will sit there for hours.
Willingness	will is willing, won't refuses, for people and things	The shop will change it. / The car won't start.
Request	Will you…? asks directly, Would you…? is softer	Will you open the window?
Shall question	Shall + I / we + V offers, suggests or asks what to do	Shall I open the window? / Let's go, shall we?
C1Guess in progress	will be + V-ing guesses what is happening now	Don't call yet. They'll be having dinner.
C1Guess about the past	will have + past participle guesses about something finished	You'll have heard the news.
C1Persistent habit	stressed will shows an annoying habit	He will keep interrupting.
C1Formal shall	shall after I or we, and in rules and promises	I shall be there. / Passengers shall not smoke.
C2Legal shall	shall states a duty on any subject in laws and contracts	The tenant shall pay the rent monthly. / Thou shalt not steal.
C2Command	will gives an order as a fact; will do accepts it	You will report at nine.
Trap	an offer with I takes shall	Shall I carry your bag?

Sentence building

Questions and negatives

Point	Rule	Example
Negative: be, modals	subject + be / modal + not	They are not at home. / He can't drive.
Question: be, modals	be / modal + subject	Are they at home? / Can he drive?
Negative: other verbs	subject + don't / doesn't / didn't + base verb	He doesn't like jazz.
Question: other verbs	do / does / did + subject + base verb	Did you call her?
do, does, did	I / you / we / they → do, he / she / it → does, past → did	Do you like jazz?
Wh-question	wh-word + auxiliary + subject + base verb	Where do you live? / Where are you from?
Subject question	no do / does / did; the verb takes the tense	Who called you?
Short answer	repeat the be, modal or auxiliary verb	Yes, she can. / No, she can't.
B2Negative question	helper + n't + subject; expects yes or shows surprise	Isn't it lovely? / Haven't you finished?
C1Fronted negative	after not only / no sooner / nowhere the auxiliary comes first	No sooner had we sat down than the phone rang.
C2Understatement	a negative with an opposite word states a fact mildly	The plan is not without risk.
Trap	after do / does / did the verb is the base form	Did you go?

Conjunctions and Linkers

Point	Rule	Example
and, or	and adds an idea, or gives a choice; usually no comma before them	I like tea and coffee. / Do you want tea or coffee?
but, so	but contrasts, so gives a result; usually a comma before them	I like tea, but I don't like coffee. / I'm tired, so I go to bed.
because	gives the reason; a clause follows	I'm tired because I work late.
A2when, before, after	a time clause; the present simple talks about the future	When I arrive, I'll call you.
A2also, too	also goes before the main verb and after be; too goes at the end	I also speak French. / I speak French too.
B1however	starts a new sentence; a comma follows	It was raining. However, we went out.
B1so that	gives a purpose; a clause follows	I left early so that I could catch the bus.
B1unless	unless means if … not	We stay in unless it stops raining.
B2despite, in spite of	a noun or an -ing form follows; despite the fact that takes a clause	Despite the rain, we went out.
B2Linking adverbs	full stop or semicolon before, comma after	It was late; however, we stayed.
C1Fronted concession	though or as follows the adjective that starts the sentence	Young though he was, he led the team.
C2Learned linkers	notwithstanding, albeit and lest belong to formal writing	He agreed, albeit reluctantly.
A2Trap	because of is followed by a noun	We stayed in because of the rain.
B1Trap	although joins two clauses and replaces but	Although it was raining, we went out.

Conditionals

Point	Rule	Example
Zero: facts	if + present, present	If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.
First: real possibilities	if + present, will + V	If you study, you'll pass.
B1Second: unreal situations	if + past simple, would + V	If I won the lottery, I'd buy a house.
B2Third: unreal past	if + had + past participle, would have + past participle	If I had known, I would have called.
B2Mixed	a past condition with a present result, or the reverse	If I had taken the job, I would be rich now.
The if-clause	present simple, also for the future	If it rains, we'll stay in.
Order	if-clause first: comma; if-clause second: no comma	If it rains, we'll stay in. / We'll stay in if it rains.
B2Other words for if	as long as means only if; in case means as a precaution	Take a coat in case it gets cold.
C1Inversion	Had, were or should first replaces if; formal	Had I known, I would have called.
C2Formal conditions	in the event that, on the proviso that, were it not for	Were it not for the noise, this would be a perfect house.
B1Trap	were for every person, also in advice	If I were you, I'd take the train.
B1Trap	unless means if … not; the verb is affirmative	Unless you hurry, you'll miss the bus.

Relative Clauses

Point	Rule	Example
Form	noun + who / which / that + clause; right after the noun	The woman who lives next door is a nurse.
who, which	who for people, which for things	The woman who lives next door is a nurse. / The book which I bought was cheap.
that	people or things, in defining clauses only	The film that we saw was long.
whose	possession; a noun follows	The man whose car was stolen called the police.
where	places	The café where we met has closed.
Subject pronoun	stays: a verb follows	The girl who speaks French is my cousin.
Object pronoun	can be left out in a defining clause only	The film I saw was long.
Defining	says which one; no commas	The man who called is my uncle.
Non-defining	extra information in commas; who / which / whose / where	Paris, which I visited in May, is beautiful.
B2Fronted preposition	the preposition comes before whom / which; formal	The woman to whom I spoke was kind.
C1Infinitive clause	noun + to + V; the preposition stays at the end	I need someone to talk to.
C2Formal relatives	whereby / wherein / whereupon in formal and legal English	They set up a system whereby tickets are sold online.
Trap	where already includes the preposition	The house where I live is old.

Passive Voice

Point	Rule	Example
Form	the object becomes the subject; be + past participle	Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. → Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Present simple	am / is / are + V-ed	English is spoken here.
Past simple	was / were + V-ed	The bridge was built in 1990.
Present perfect	has / have been + V-ed	The window has been broken.
will, can, must	will / can / must be + V-ed	The results will be sent tomorrow.
Negative, question	negative: be + not + V-ed; question: be + subject + V-ed	The room wasn't cleaned. / Was the room cleaned?
Use	unknown or unimportant doer, processes, news, formal writing	My phone was stolen on the train. / Wine is made from grapes.
by / with	by names a new or important doer; with names a tool	The song was written by Adele.
B2Other forms	modal be + V-ed; continuous being + V-ed	The form must be signed. / The road is being repaired.
B2Reporting passive	subject + be said + to + base verb reports opinions	He is said to be rich.
C1Formal writing	the agentless passive reports method and findings	The samples were heated to 80 degrees.
C2Middle voice	an active verb with a passive meaning	This book reads well.
Trap	verbs without an object stay active: happen / arrive / die	The accident happened yesterday.
Trap	use the past participle: made, written, sold, taken	The window was broken.

Reported Speech

Point	Rule	Example
say	say + (that) + clause; no person, or to + person	She said (that) she was tired.
tell	tell + person + (that) + clause	She told me (that) she was tired.
present simple / present continuous	→ past simple / past continuous	He said he worked there. / She said she was waiting.
past simple / present perfect	→ past perfect	He said he had left. / She said she had finished.
will / can / must	→ would / could / had to	He said he would call. / She said she could swim.
No change	would, could, should, might; a fact still true; after says (present)	She said she lives in Paris. / She says she is tired.
Pronouns and time	pronouns follow the speaker; today → that day, tomorrow → the next day	Anna said she was tired.
Questions	yes/no questions take if or whether; wh-questions keep the wh-word	She asked if I liked tea.
Commands	told / asked + person + (not) to + V	He told us not to be late.
B2Reporting verbs	each verb has its own pattern: that-clause, to-infinitive or -ing	She advised me to rest.
C1Distancing	claim, allege, reportedly: the reporter does not vouch for it	The witness claims that she saw the car.
C2Free indirect speech	narration gives a character's thoughts with no reporting verb	She was late. What would he say?
Trap	a reported question has statement order, with no do / does / did	She asked me where I lived.

The Subjunctive

Point	Rule	Example
Form	that + subject + base verb; one form for every person	The school insists that he wear a tie.
Negative and passive	not goes before the verb; the passive is be + past participle	I suggest that he not go. / It is vital that it be checked.
After verbs	suggest, recommend, insist, demand, require and request call for it	The doctor recommends that she rest more.
After adjectives and nouns	essential, vital, important and necessary; nouns such as requirement and proposal	It is essential that everyone be on time.
British and American	American English prefers the bare verb; British English often adds should	We recommend that she should apply. (US: apply)
Were	were follows every subject after if, as if and wish	I wish it were Friday.
Lest	lest is formal and takes the base verb or should	She whispered lest the baby wake.
C2Fixed formulas	old formulas keep the bare verb and are quoted whole	I'll be there, come what may. / Suffice it to say that we lost.
C2Be-clauses	be opens a formal concession with two alternatives	Be it large or small, every gift helps.
C2Formal texts	orders, resolutions and motions keep the bare verb	I move that the minutes be approved.
C2Proverbs	short sayings keep an older order and the bare verb	Waste not, want not.
Trap	suggest takes a that clause or -ing	I suggest that he go. / I suggest going early.

Participle Clauses

Point	Rule	Example
Forms	-ing is active, having + past participle is earlier, a past participle is passive	Walking home, I met Tom. / Having finished lunch, we left. / Written in 1990, the book is old.
Meanings	time, reason, result or an accompanying action	Feeling tired, she went to bed. / He dropped the plate, breaking it.
After a conjunction	while, when, before, after, since, on and by take -ing	Before signing, read the contract.
C1With a noun	with and without give the noun a participle or complement of its own	She sat with her arms crossed. / With the lights off, the room felt cold.
C1Own subject	being joins a subject of its own to the clause	It being Sunday, the shops were closed.
C1Condition and concession	a past participle, provided, supposing or though opens it	Used properly, the product is safe. / Though warned, he went anyway.
C1Result	thereby + V-ing names the result of the whole main clause	Prices rose, thereby forcing shops to close.
C2Absolute phrases	a noun and a participle or adjective, with no verb, set the scene	Weather permitting, we will eat outside. / Her work finished, she left.
C2Comment clauses	fixed phrases comment on the sentence and keep their wording	Strictly speaking, a tomato is a fruit.
C2After a noun	a participle after a noun, or a chain of them, adds detail	The problem posed by rising costs, compounded by falling demand, forced the firm to close.
Subject	the clause shares the subject of the main clause	Opening the box, Maria found a note.
Trap	a different doer needs a full clause or a new main subject	Walking down the road, he was hit by a car.

Emphasis and Cleft Sentences

Point	Rule	Example
Emphatic do	do / does / did + base verb carries the stress	She did tell me.
It-cleft	It + be + focus + who / that + clause	It was Tom who broke it.
Wh-cleft	What + clause + be + focus; or reversed: focus + be + what + clause	What I need is a holiday.
Noun frames	all, the thing, the reason and the place open the clause	All I want is peace and quiet.
C1Clause as focus	the focus can be a clause: only when, not until, because	It was only when she left that I realised.
C1Explanatory cleft	rejects one reason and gives the real one	It isn't that I don't like her; it's that I'm busy.
C1Answers	a cleft answers a wh-question; the main stress falls on the focus	Who broke it? — It was Tom.
C2Infinitive focus	after a form of do, the focus is a bare or to-infinitive	All you have to do is (to) press the button.
C2Stance frames	the fact is, the thing is and similar frames open a statement	The trouble is that the shop closes at five.
C2Formal writing	formal clefts point back to a reason or a context	It is for this reason that the committee refused.
C2Topic first	the topic comes first, then a clause with its own subject	As for Tom, he has gone home.
Trap	who or that replaces the focus: no second subject or object	It was Ana that I met.

Inversion and Fronting

Point	Rule	Example
Order	negative adverbial + auxiliary + subject + verb; do, does or did if there is none	Never have I seen such a crowd. / Rarely does she complain.
Negative adverbials	never, rarely, little, nowhere, not once, on no account	Little did he know what was coming.
Hardly and no sooner	hardly and scarcely take when, no sooner takes than; past perfect first	No sooner had he arrived than it began to rain.
Not only, not until, only	the main clause inverts; the other clause keeps its order	Not until he left did I understand.
So and such	so + adjective or adverb, or such + be, then that	So tired was she that she fell asleep.
Nor and neither	the auxiliary of the first clause, then the subject	She didn't call, nor did she write.
C2Place and direction	the verb stands before a noun subject; a pronoun subject stays first	Here comes the bus. / Here he comes.
C2Complements and objects	a fronted complement puts be before the subject; an object does not	Gone are the days of long letters. / This much I know.
C2Than, as and quotations	a noun subject can follow the verb or auxiliary	Tom is tall, as is his brother. / “Come in,” said Tom.
C2Conditionals	had, were and should replace if in formal conditions	Should you need help, please ask.
Trap	the subject follows the auxiliary, not the adverbial	Not only did she win, but she also set a record.
Trap	do, does and did take the base verb	Rarely does he come late.

Discourse Markers and Hedging

Point	Rule	Example
Spoken markers	each marks a job: start, shift, return, check, correct, conclude	By the way, did you call Anna?
Hedges	soften a word or a claim: sort of, a bit, I'd say	I'd say it's a bit late.
Vague language	or so, and so on and or something leave the detail open	Let's have a coffee or something.
Turn-taking	set phrases hold the floor, interrupt, agree and show you listen	Sorry to interrupt, but the shop closes at five.
C1Stance	frankly, to be fair and in fact show how the speaker sees a point	To be fair, he did say sorry.
C1Academic hedging	tend to, may and suggest fit a claim to its evidence; boosters raise it	Prices tend to rise in summer.
C1Indirectness	soften a request or a disagreement: I was wondering if, with all due respect	I was wondering if you could help me.
C1Distancing	allegedly, reportedly and so-called credit a claim to others	The man allegedly took the car.
C2Understatement and irony	not bad and not exactly say less than they mean; the tune shows it	How was the film? — Not bad.
C2Formal markers	that said, to that end and by the same token link the steps of a formal argument	The cost is high. That said, the benefits are clear.
C2Metadiscourse	preview, review and reformulate in a long talk	I'd like to begin by thanking you all.
C1Trap	according to names a source; give your own view with in my opinion	In my opinion, the plan is weak.

Adjectives and adverbs

Too, Enough, So and Such

Point	Rule	Example
too + adjective / adverb	more than is good; the result follows with to + V	The box is too heavy for me to lift.
adjective + enough / enough + noun	enough follows an adjective and comes before a noun	She is old enough to drive. / We have enough chairs.
so + adjective / adverb	the result follows with that	I was so tired that I fell asleep.
such a + adjective + singular noun / such + adjective + plural noun	such goes with a noun, so with an adjective or adverb	It's such a good film. / They are such nice people.
B2Stronger or weaker	far too and a little too; more than enough, not nearly enough	It is far too hot. / We have more than enough food.
B2Result or purpose	so gives a result; so that and so as to give a purpose	It was so cold that the lake froze. / We left early so that we could get seats.
C1Formal degree	so much so that, to such an extent that, so foolish as to	He was nervous, so much so that he could not speak.
C1something of a + noun	enough of a, not much of a, something of a	She is something of an expert.
C2so + adjective + a + singular noun	after as, so, too, how the adjective precedes a	It was too long a delay.
Trap	not + adjective + enough	The room is not big enough.
Trap	so many + plural noun	I have so many friends.

Adverbs of Degree, Focus and Attitude

Point	Rule	Example
Degree with adjectives	very goes with gradable adjectives, absolutely with extreme ones	It's very cold. / It's absolutely freezing.
Quite	quite means fairly before a gradable adjective, completely before an extreme one	It's quite good. / I'm quite sure.
Degree with verbs	most precede the verb; very much and a lot follow it	I totally agree. / I like it very much.
Focus	a focus adverb stands next to the word it focuses on	Only Tom came. / Tom came only on Monday.
Still and no longer	still continues; no longer and any more end	She still lives here. / She no longer lives here.
Sentence adverbs	they comment on the whole sentence; a comma follows at the start	Luckily, nobody was hurt.
C1Downtoners	hardly, scarcely and barely are negative: no second negative	I can hardly see.
C1Collocations	the intensifier follows the meaning of the adjective	highly unlikely / deeply concerned
C1Stance adverbs	they show how sure or how fair the speaker is	Arguably, it is her best book.
C2Formal adverbs	formal prose adds adverbs such as invariably and exceedingly	He invariably arrives early. / She was exceedingly kind.
C2Position	an adverb follows the first auxiliary; before it for emphasis	It has quite clearly been a success. / He certainly has.
Trap	an extreme adjective takes absolutely or really	The soup is absolutely delicious.

Word formation

Prefixes and Suffixes

Point	Rule	Example
Suffixes	-tion / -ment / -ness make nouns; -able / -ful / -ous make adjectives	educate → education / kind → kindness / enjoy → enjoyable
Verb formation	-ise / -ify / -en / en- make verbs	simple → simplify / short → shorten / rich → enrich
Negative prefixes	un- / in- / dis- / non- / mis- negate; in- becomes im-, il-, ir-	happy → unhappy / agree → disagree
Other prefixes	re- again, over- too much, under- too little, ex- former	write → rewrite / cook → overcook / wife → ex-wife
Sound	some suffixes move the stress and shorten the vowel	ˈphotograph → photoˈgraphic / divide → division
Trap	possible takes in-, which becomes im- before p	It is impossible to finish today.
C1Productive suffixes	-ish / -y / -able / -ify / -ism attach freely to new bases	download → downloadable / solid → solidify
C1-ity / -ness	-ity usually follows a Latinate adjective, -ness a native one	possible → possibility / kind → kindness
C1Combining forms	Greek and Latin forms build technical words	biology / geography / telephone
C1Register	Latinate words sound more formal than their native partners	begin = commence / enough = sufficient
C2Look-alikes	a pair of suffixes can split the meaning	an economic crisis / an economical car
C2Rare and new affixes	hyper- and pseudo- are learned; -holic and -gate are coinages	hypersensitive / pseudonym / workaholic

Compounds and Conversion

Point	Rule	Example
Compound noun	the last word is the head; the first word narrows it	a bus stop / a swimming pool
Compound adjective	a singular noun after a number; a participle after a noun or adverb	a ten-minute walk / home-made jam / a well-known author
Conversion	a word changes class with no change of form; endings are regular	I'll email you. / Let's go for a run.
Short forms	clippings and blends are words; initialisms take a or an by sound	I go to the gym. / an MP
C1Meaning relation	the first noun gives the material, purpose, place, agent or time	a gold ring / a bus driver
C1Plural modifier	a few modifiers keep a plural form	a sports car / a women's magazine
C1Reduplication	the vowel changes in the repeat; i comes before a or o	zigzag / ping-pong
C1Productive element	an element such as -free, -proof or -led makes new adjectives	a sugar-free drink
C2Binomial	the order is fixed by length, sound or custom	fish and chips / null and void
C2Compound or phrase	a compound takes first-word stress and can mean more than its parts	a ˈblackbird ≠ a black ˈbird
C2Creative conversion	nouns become verbs and phrases become modifiers for one occasion	They gifted us a painting. / an I-told-you-so look
Trap	the noun after a number stays singular	a five-year-old boy