Cheatsheet: Sentence building

Sentence building

Word Order

Point	Rule	Example
Order	subject + verb + object + place + time	My sister buys bread in the shop every day.
Subject	the subject is always present	It is cold.
Adjective	comes before the noun	I have a red car.
A1Time first	a time phrase can start the sentence, often with a comma	Last summer, we went to Italy.
A1Frequency adverb	before the main verb, after be	I always eat breakfast. / She is always late.
A1Trap	place comes before time	I went to London yesterday.

Questions and negatives

Point	Rule	Example
Negative: be, modals	subject + be / modal + not	They are not at home. / He can't drive.
Question: be, modals	be / modal + subject	Are they at home? / Can he drive?
Negative: other verbs	subject + don't / doesn't / didn't + base verb	He doesn't like jazz.
Question: other verbs	do / does / did + subject + base verb	Did you call her?
do, does, did	I / you / we / they → do, he / she / it → does, past → did	Do you like jazz?
Wh-question	wh-word + auxiliary + subject + base verb	Where do you live? / Where are you from?
Subject question	no do / does / did; the verb takes the tense	Who called you?
Short answer	repeat the be, modal or auxiliary verb	Yes, she can. / No, she can't.
Trap	after do / does / did the verb is the base form	Did you go?

Conjunctions and Linkers

Point	Rule	Example
and, or	and adds an idea, or gives a choice; usually no comma before them	I like tea and coffee. / Do you want tea or coffee?
but, so	but contrasts, so gives a result; usually a comma before them	I like tea, but I don't like coffee. / I'm tired, so I go to bed.
because	gives the reason; a clause follows	I'm tired because I work late.
A2when, before, after	a time clause; the present simple talks about the future	When I arrive, I'll call you.
A2also, too	also goes before the main verb and after be; too goes at the end	I also speak French. / I speak French too.
B1however	starts a new sentence; a comma follows	It was raining. However, we went out.
B1so that	gives a purpose; a clause follows	I left early so that I could catch the bus.
B1unless	unless means if … not	We stay in unless it stops raining.
A2Trap	because of is followed by a noun	We stayed in because of the rain.
B1Trap	although joins two clauses and replaces but	Although it was raining, we went out.

Conditionals: Zero, First and Second

Point	Rule	Example
Zero: facts	if + present, present	If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.
First: real possibilities	if + present, will + V	If you study, you'll pass.
B1Second: unreal situations	if + past simple, would + V	If I won the lottery, I'd buy a house.
The if-clause	present simple, also for the future	If it rains, we'll stay in.
Order	if-clause first: comma; if-clause second: no comma	If it rains, we'll stay in. / We'll stay in if it rains.
B1Trap	were for every person, also in advice	If I were you, I'd take the train.
B1Trap	unless means if … not; the verb is affirmative	Unless you hurry, you'll miss the bus.

Relative Clauses

Point	Rule	Example
Form	noun + who / which / that + clause; right after the noun	The woman who lives next door is a nurse.
who, which	who for people, which for things	The woman who lives next door is a nurse. / The book which I bought was cheap.
that	people or things, in defining clauses only	The film that we saw was long.
whose	possession; a noun follows	The man whose car was stolen called the police.
where	places	The café where we met has closed.
Subject pronoun	stays: a verb follows	The girl who speaks French is my cousin.
Object pronoun	can be left out in a defining clause only	The film I saw was long.
Defining	says which one; no commas	The man who called is my uncle.
Non-defining	extra information in commas; who / which / whose / where	Paris, which I visited in May, is beautiful.
Trap	where already includes the preposition	The house where I live is old.

Passive Voice

Point	Rule	Example
Form	the object becomes the subject; be + past participle	Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. → Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Present simple	am / is / are + V-ed	English is spoken here.
Past simple	was / were + V-ed	The bridge was built in 1990.
Present perfect	has / have been + V-ed	The window has been broken.
will, can, must	will / can / must be + V-ed	The results will be sent tomorrow.
Negative, question	negative: be + not + V-ed; question: be + subject + V-ed	The room wasn't cleaned. / Was the room cleaned?
Use	unknown or unimportant doer, processes, news, formal writing	My phone was stolen on the train. / Wine is made from grapes.
by / with	by names a new or important doer; with names a tool	The song was written by Adele.
Trap	verbs without an object stay active: happen / arrive / die	The accident happened yesterday.
Trap	use the past participle: made, written, sold, taken	The window was broken.

Reported Speech

Point	Rule	Example
say	say + (that) + clause; no person, or to + person	She said (that) she was tired.
tell	tell + person + (that) + clause	She told me (that) she was tired.
present simple / present continuous	→ past simple / past continuous	He said he worked there. / She said she was waiting.
past simple / present perfect	→ past perfect	He said he had left. / She said she had finished.
will / can / must	→ would / could / had to	He said he would call. / She said she could swim.
No change	would, could, should, might; a fact still true; after says (present)	She said she lives in Paris. / She says she is tired.
Pronouns and time	pronouns follow the speaker; today → that day, tomorrow → the next day	Anna said she was tired.
Questions	yes/no questions take if or whether; wh-questions keep the wh-word	She asked if I liked tea.
Commands	told / asked + person + (not) to + V	He told us not to be late.
Trap	a reported question has statement order, with no do / does / did	She asked me where I lived.

Question Tags

Point	Rule	Example
Form	positive statement, negative tag; negative statement, positive tag	It's cold, isn't it? / It isn't cold, is it?
Pronoun	auxiliary + pronoun; the pronoun replaces the subject	Tom is late, isn't he?
be	isn't / aren't / wasn't / weren't	They were late, weren't they?
Other verbs	present: don't / doesn't; past: didn't	She works here, doesn't she? / He left early, didn't he?
have, modals	repeat the auxiliary or modal	You've finished, haven't you? / You can swim, can't you?
I am	aren't I	I'm right, aren't I?
Let's, command	Let's → shall we; command → will you	Let's go, shall we? / Open the door, will you?
Use	check something, make conversation or ask politely	You're from Madrid, aren't you?
Intonation	falling ↘: you are sure; rising ↗: a real question	It's a lovely day, isn't it? ↘ / You haven't seen my keys, have you? ↗
Trap	nobody / nothing / never make the statement negative: positive tag	Nobody called, did they?