Prefixes and suffixes build new words from a base: a suffix sets the word class, a prefix adds meaning, and a suffix can move the stress. The suffix, not the base, gives the word class: enjoy → enjoyment, enjoy → enjoyable
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
CheatsheetB2–C2
| Point | Rule | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Suffixes | ‑tion / ‑ment / ‑ness make nouns; ‑able / ‑ful / ‑ous make adjectives | educate → education / kind → kindness / enjoy → enjoyable | B2 |
| Verb formation | ‑ise / ‑ify / ‑en / en- make verbs | simple → simplify / short → shorten / rich → enrich | B2 |
| Negative prefixes | un- / in- / dis- / non- / mis- negate; in- becomes im-, il-, ir- | happy → unhappy / agree → disagree | B2 |
| Other prefixes | re- again, over- too much, under- too little, ex- former | write → rewrite / cook → overcook / wife → ex-wife | B2 |
| Sound | some suffixes move the stress and shorten the vowel | ˈphotograph → photoˈgraphic / divide → division | B2 |
| Trap | possible takes in-, which becomes im- before p | It is impossible to finish today. | B2 |
| Productive suffixes | ‑ish / ‑y / ‑able / ‑ify / ‑ism attach freely to new bases | download → downloadable / solid → solidify | C1 |
| ‑ity / ‑ness | ‑ity usually follows a Latinate adjective, ‑ness a native one | possible → possibility / kind → kindness | C1 |
| Combining forms | Greek and Latin forms build technical words | biology / geography / telephone | C1 |
| Register | Latinate words sound more formal than their native partners | begin = commence / enough = sufficient | C1 |
| Look-alikes | a pair of suffixes can split the meaning | an economic crisis / an economical car | C2 |
| Rare and new affixes | hyper- and pseudo- are learned; ‑holic and ‑gate are coinages | hypersensitive / pseudonym / workaholic | C2 |
OverviewB2
- A suffix ends a word and usually sets its class; a prefix starts it and usually keeps the class. happy → happiness / happy → unhappy
- Read a new word in order: the suffix gives the class, the prefix adds meaning, the base the core. dis + agree + ment → disagreement
- Letters that look like an affix are not always one: singer has ‑er, finger does not.
Noun suffixesB2
| Suffix | Makes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑tion / ‑sion / ‑ation | verb → noun: the action or its result | educate → education / decide → decision / inform → information | B2 |
| ‑ment | verb → noun: the action or its result | improve → improvement / develop → development / agree → agreement | B2 |
| ‑ness | adjective → noun: a quality or state | kind → kindness / dark → darkness / happy → happiness | B2 |
| ‑ity | adjective → noun: a quality or state | able → ability / active → activity / popular → popularity | B2 |
| ‑ence / ‑ance | verb / adjective → noun: an action, quality or state | perform → performance / differ → difference / important → importance | B2 |
| ‑ship | noun → noun: a state, a relationship or a skill | friend → friendship / member → membership / leader → leadership | B2 |
| ‑hood | noun → noun: a stage or state of life | child → childhood / adult → adulthood / parent → parenthood | B2 |
| ‑dom | noun / adjective → noun: a state or a realm | free → freedom / king → kingdom / bore → boredom | B2 |
| ‑er / ‑or / ‑ist / ‑ian | verb / noun → person: the person who does it | teach → teacher / art → artist / music → musician | B2 |
| ‑ism | noun / adjective → noun: a belief, a system or a practice | tour → tourism / journal → journalism / real → realism | B2 |
| ‑th | adjective → noun: a measure, with a changed vowel | long → length / deep → depth / wide → width / strong → strength | B2 |
Adjective suffixesB2
| Suffix | Makes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑able / ‑ible | verb → adjective: that can be done | enjoy → enjoyable / accept → acceptable / reverse → reversible | B2 |
| ‑ful | noun → adjective: full of | care → careful / success → successful / use → useful | B2 |
| ‑less | noun → adjective: without | home → homeless / hope → hopeless / end → endless | B2 |
| ‑ive | verb → adjective: tending to | act → active / create → creative / attract → attractive | B2 |
| ‑ous | noun → adjective: having the quality | danger → dangerous / fame → famous / adventure → adventurous | B2 |
| ‑al | noun → adjective: relating to | nation → national / culture → cultural / tradition → traditional | B2 |
| ‑ic / ‑ical | noun → adjective: relating to | artist → artistic / biology → biological / geography → geographical | B2 |
| ‑y | noun → adjective: full of, or like | rain → rainy / salt → salty / health → healthy | B2 |
| ‑ish | noun → adjective: like, or typical of | child → childish / fool → foolish / style → stylish | B2 |
| ‑ly | noun → adjective: like, or every | friend → friendly / love → lovely / week → weekly | B2 |
| ‑ent / ‑ant | verb → adjective: doing or being | depend → dependent / please → pleasant / resist → resistant | B2 |
Verb formationB2
| Affix | Makes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑ise (US: ‑ize) | adjective / noun → verb: make or become | modern → modernise (US: modernize) / real → realise (US: realize) / memory → memorise (US: memorize) | B2 |
| ‑ify | adjective / noun → verb: make | simple → simplify / class → classify / pure → purify | B2 |
| ‑en | adjective / noun → verb: make or become | short → shorten / wide → widen / strength → strengthen | B2 |
| en- / em- | adjective / noun → verb: put into a state; em- stands before b, m and p | able → enable / rich → enrich / power → empower | B2 |
| be- | noun / adjective → verb: treat as, or make | friend → befriend / little → belittle | B2 |
Negative and reversing prefixesB2
| Prefix | Use | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| un- with an adjective or participle | not | happy → unhappy / fair → unfair / finished → unfinished | B2 |
| un- with a verb | reverses the action | do → undo / lock → unlock / pack → unpack | B2 |
| in- / im- / il- / ir- | not, with an adjective; im- stands before b, m and p, il- before l, ir- before r | correct → incorrect / possible → impossible / legal → illegal / regular → irregular | B2 |
| dis- | the opposite, or the lack of it | agree → disagree / like → dislike / honest → dishonest / connect → disconnect | B2 |
| non- | not, or without | stop → non-stop / fiction → non-fiction / smoker → non-smoker | B2 |
| mis- | wrongly or badly | understand → misunderstand / spell → misspell / lead → mislead | B2 |
| de- | removes or reverses | code → decode / frost → defrost / activate → deactivate | B2 |
| anti- | against | social → antisocial / clockwise → anticlockwise (US: counterclockwise) / smoking → anti-smoking | B2 |
- Most bases take only one negative prefix: learn the pair with the word. unhappy / impossible / dishonest
Other prefixesB2
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| re- | again | write → rewrite / build → rebuild / start → restart | B2 |
| pre- | before | heat → preheat / view → preview / historic → prehistoric | B2 |
| post- | after | graduate → postgraduate / script → postscript | B2 |
| over- | too much | work → overwork / cook → overcook / crowded → overcrowded | B2 |
| under- | too little, or below | pay → underpay / estimate → underestimate / ground → underground | B2 |
| out- | more or better than | run → outrun / live → outlive / number → outnumber | B2 |
| sub- | under, below | way → subway / title → subtitle / standard → substandard | B2 |
| super- | above, more than | market → supermarket / human → superhuman / natural → supernatural | B2 |
| inter- | between | national → international / act → interact / net → internet | B2 |
| trans- | across, or into another state | Atlantic → transatlantic / form → transform / plant → transplant | B2 |
| multi- | many | national → multinational / cultural → multicultural / purpose → multipurpose | B2 |
| semi- | half, partly | circle → semicircle / final → semi-final / detached → semi-detached | B2 |
| mid- | the middle of | night → midnight / summer → midsummer / week → midweek | B2 |
| co- | together | author → co-author / exist → coexist / worker → co-worker | B2 |
| ex- | former | wife → ex-wife / president → ex-president / boss → ex-boss | B2 |
| self- | of, to or by oneself | employed → self-employed / confident → self-confident / service → self-service | B2 |
| bi- / tri- | two, three | lingual → bilingual / cycle → bicycle / angle → triangle | B2 |
Spelling: joining an affixB2
| Join | Rule | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑tion and ‑sion after some verbs | the base changes its letters | explain → explanation / pronounce → pronunciation / repeat → repetition / decide → decision | B2 |
| ex- / self- / non- | a hyphen follows the prefix | ex-wife / self-employed / non-stop | B2 |
| a prefix before a capital letter or a number | a hyphen follows the prefix | anti-American / pre-1990 / mid-July | B2 |
- Doubling, silent e and y to i apply to affixes as to any ending: see Spelling Rules.
Pronunciation: stress and sound changesB2
| Change | Rule | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| stress moves | ‑ic / ‑ical / ‑ity / ‑ion put the stress on the syllable before the suffix | ˈphotograph → photoˈgraphic / eˈlectric → elecˈtricity | B2 |
| stress stays | ‑ness / ‑ment / ‑ful / ‑ly / un- / dis- / mis- leave the stress on the base | ˈhappy → ˈhappiness / aˈgree → disaˈgree | B2 |
| the vowel shortens | a long vowel or diphthong often becomes short in the longer word | serene /səˈriːn/ → serenity /səˈrenəti/ · sane /seɪn/ → sanity /ˈsænəti/ · divide /dɪˈvaɪd/ → division /dɪˈvɪʒn/ | B2 |
| the consonant changes | ‑ity / ‑ian change the sound of a final c | electric /ɪˈlektrɪk/ → electricity /ɪˌlekˈtrɪsəti/ · music /ˈmjuːzɪk/ → musician /mjuˈzɪʃn/ | B2 |
- The stress patterns of suffixes are set out in Sounds and IPA.
Productive suffixes and their limitsC1
| Suffix | Rule | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑ish | added to an adjective, a number or a time in speech: roughly | tall → tallish / cold → coldish / eight → eightish | C1 |
| ‑y | added to a noun or verb for an informal adjective of quality | stretch → stretchy / bend → bendy / fizz → fizzy | C1 |
| ‑able | added to a verb that takes an object, new verbs included | download → downloadable / recycle → recyclable / wash → washable | C1 |
| ‑ise / ‑ify | ‑ise forms new verbs freely, especially in business; ‑ify joins short bases | private → privatise (US: privatize) / priority → prioritise (US: prioritize) / game → gamify | C1 |
| ‑ation | ‑ise gives ‑isation, ‑ify gives ‑ification | organise → organisation (US: organize → organization) / simplify → simplification | C1 |
| ‑ism | names a movement from a person or a noun; its follower takes ‑ist | minimal → minimalism / Darwin → Darwinism / individual → individualism | C1 |
| Suffix | Makes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑proof | noun → adjective: protected against | water → waterproof / child → childproof / fire → fireproof | C1 |
| ‑friendly | noun → adjective: suited to, or kind to | user → user-friendly / child → child-friendly / eco → eco-friendly | C1 |
| ‑free | noun → adjective: without | sugar → sugar-free / hassle → hassle-free / tax → tax-free | C1 |
| ‑led | noun → adjective: directed by | teacher → teacher-led / student → student-led / export → export-led | C1 |
| ‑wise | noun → adverb: as far as the noun is concerned, in informal speech | money → moneywise / weather → weatherwise / time → timewise | C1 |
| Point | Rule | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑ity | usually follows a Latinate adjective | possible → possibility / generous → generosity / electric → electricity | C1 |
| ‑ness | usually follows a native adjective, and joins almost any new one | kind → kindness / dark → darkness / awkward → awkwardness | C1 |
| order of suffixes | each suffix joins the word class that the one before it made | nation → national → nationalise → nationalisation (US: nation → national → nationalize → nationalization) | C1 |
| prefix in a chain | a prefix joins the word it fits, and a suffix can follow | break → breakable → unbreakable → unbreakability | C1 |
Greek and Latin combining formsC1
| Form | Meaning | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| bio- | life | biology / biography / biodiversity | C1 |
| geo- | earth | geography / geology / geothermal | C1 |
| hydro- | water | hydroelectric / hydrogen / hydrofoil | C1 |
| photo- | light | photograph / photocopy / photosynthesis | C1 |
| tele- | far, at a distance | telephone / television / telescope | C1 |
| micro- | very small | microscope / microwave / microphone | C1 |
| macro- | large, on a large scale | macroeconomics / macronutrient / macroscopic | C1 |
| mono- | one, single | monologue / monotone / monolingual | C1 |
| poly- | many | polygon / polyglot / polytechnic | C1 |
| auto- | self | autobiography / automatic / autopilot | C1 |
| Form | Meaning | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑logy | the study of | biology / psychology / technology | C1 |
| ‑graphy | writing, drawing or recording | geography / photography / biography | C1 |
| ‑phobia | fear of | claustrophobia / arachnophobia / xenophobia | C1 |
| ‑cracy | rule by | democracy / bureaucracy / aristocracy | C1 |
| ‑ectomy | surgical removal of | appendicectomy (US: appendectomy) / tonsillectomy / vasectomy | C1 |
- A linking o joins a form that ends in a consonant to the next form. psych + o + logy → psychology
- ‑ology / ‑graphy put the stress on the syllable before the ending. biˈology / geˈography / psyˈchology
Adjectives in ‑edC1
| Pattern | Rule | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| noun + ed | having the noun; many have no verb behind them | talent → talented / beard → bearded / wood → wooded | C1 |
| adjective + noun + ed | having that feature; a hyphen joins the parts before a noun | a blue-eyed girl / a kind-hearted man / a left-handed player | C1 |
- The noun in the compound stays singular. a long-legged bird / a two-faced friend
Compare: everyday and formal wordsC1
| Everyday | Formal | |
|---|---|---|
| The meeting will begin at nine. | The meeting will commence at nine. | C1 |
| We bought the tickets online. | We purchased the tickets online. | C1 |
| I asked about the price. | I enquired (US: inquired) about the price. | C1 |
| The test shows that the plan works. | The test demonstrates that the plan works. | C1 |
| We have enough time. | We have sufficient time. | C1 |
| You can get a form at the desk. | You can obtain a form at the desk. | C1 |
| Visitors need a pass. | Visitors require a pass. | C1 |
| Point | Register | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑ate / ‑ify / ‑ant / ‑ion | Latinate endings build formal and technical words | speed up = accelerate / make clear = clarify / helper = assistant / choice = selection | C1 |
| Latinate verbs | a Latinate verb replaces a phrasal verb in formal writing: see Phrasal Verbs: Core | put off = postpone / find out = discover / put up with = tolerate | C1 |
Compare: look-alike derivationsC2
| Pair | Difference | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| economic / economical | economic relates to the economy; economical means not wasteful | an economic crisis / an economical car | C2 |
| historic / historical | historic means important in history; historical means about the past | a historic victory / a historical novel | C2 |
| classic / classical | classic means typical or of lasting quality; classical means of ancient Greece and Rome or of a formal tradition | a classic mistake / a classical concert | C2 |
| electric / electrical | electric means powered by electricity; electrical means about electricity in general | an electric kettle / an electrical engineer | C2 |
| sensible / sensitive | sensible means practical and reasonable; sensitive means quick to feel or easily hurt | a sensible choice / sensitive skin | C2 |
| continual / continuous | continual means repeated with breaks; continuous means without a break | continual interruptions / a continuous line | C2 |
| imaginary / imaginative | imaginary means existing only in the mind; imaginative means full of new ideas | an imaginary friend / an imaginative writer | C2 |
| childish / childlike | childish means silly and not mature; childlike means innocent and simple | childish jokes / childlike wonder | C2 |
| respectable / respectful / respective | respectable means of good standing; respectful means showing respect; respective means belonging to each one separately | a respectable family / a respectful pupil / their respective rooms | C2 |
Agent and gender suffixesC2
| Suffix | Rule | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑er / ‑ee | ‑er names the one who acts, ‑ee the one who receives the action | employer ≠ employee / interviewer ≠ interviewee / trainer ≠ trainee | C2 |
| ‑ee | also names a person in a state or role, with no matching ‑er word | absentee / escapee / refugee | C2 |
| ‑ess | marks a woman and stays in titles | princess / duchess / countess | C2 |
| ‑person | ‑man in a job title gives way to ‑person | chairman → chairperson / spokesman → spokesperson / salesman → salesperson | C2 |
| a neutral word | one word serves any person | actress → actor / policeman → police officer / stewardess → flight attendant | C2 |
Learned and rare affixesC2
| Affix | Meaning | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| hyper- / hypo- | hyper- means over, above normal; hypo- means under, below normal | hyperactive / hypersensitive / hypothermia / hypoallergenic | C2 |
| para- | beside, beyond, or helping | paramedic / paranormal / paraphrase | C2 |
| pseudo- | false | pseudonym / pseudoscience | C2 |
| quasi- | seeming, partly | quasi-official / quasi-legal | C2 |
| neo- | new, revived | neoclassical / neolithic / neologism | C2 |
| mal- | bad, badly | malfunction / malnutrition / malpractice | C2 |
| ante- | before; anti- means against | antenatal / antechamber | C2 |
| intra- | within | intranet / intravenous / intrapersonal | C2 |
| extra- | outside, beyond | extraordinary / extracurricular / extraterrestrial | C2 |
| circum- | around | circumference / circumnavigate / circumvent | C2 |
| contra- | against | contradict / contraflow / contraception | C2 |
| ‑itis | inflammation of | arthritis / bronchitis / tonsillitis | C2 |
| ‑ate | Latin endings of verbs, adjectives and nouns: /eɪt/ in a verb, /ət/ in the others | to estimate /ˈestɪmeɪt/ ≠ an estimate /ˈestɪmət/ · to separate /ˈsepəreɪt/ ≠ a separate room /ˈseprət/ | C2 |
| a- | in a state or position; most such adjectives stand after the verb | The baby is asleep. / The house was aflame. / The boat is afloat. | C2 |
| be- | all over, thoroughly; literary | deck → bedeck / witch → bewitch / dazzle → bedazzle | C2 |
CoinageC2
| Affix | Meaning | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑gate | a scandal, after Watergate | Partygate / Dieselgate | C2 |
| ‑holic / ‑aholic | addicted to, or unable to stop, after alcoholic | workaholic / shopaholic / chocoholic | C2 |
| ‑athon | a long event, after marathon | hackathon / telethon / walkathon | C2 |
| ‑ista | a follower or enthusiast, after Spanish | fashionista | C2 |
| ‑ism | prejudice against a group | ageism / sexism / ableism | C2 |
| e- / cyber- / eco- / mega- | e- and cyber- mean online; eco- means environmental; mega- means very large | e-commerce / cyberattack / eco-tourism / megastore | C2 |
- A coinage may be informal or short-lived: check a dictionary before using one in formal writing.
Typical errorsB2–C2
| Wrong | Right | Rule | |
|---|---|---|---|
| unpossible | impossible | possible takes in-, which becomes im- before p | B2 |
| unhonest | dishonest | honest takes dis- | B2 |
| enjoyful | enjoyable | enjoy takes ‑able, not ‑ful | B2 |
| strongen | strengthen | ‑en joins the noun strength | B2 |
| She answered friendlily. | She answered in a friendly way. | an adjective in ‑ly has no adverb: use a phrase | B2 |
| possibleness | possibility | a Latinate adjective takes ‑ity | C1 |
| simplifation | simplification | a verb in ‑ify takes ‑ification | C1 |
| a blue eyes girl | a blue-eyed girl | the compound adjective takes ‑ed and a singular noun | C1 |
| an economic car | an economical car | economical means not wasteful | C2 |
| sensible skin | sensitive skin | sensitive means quick to feel; sensible means reasonable | C2 |
| a historic novel | a historical novel | historical means about the past | C2 |
| continuous interruptions | continual interruptions | continual means repeated with breaks | C2 |
| an asleep baby | a sleeping baby | most adjectives in a- stand after the verb | C2 |
| their respectful rooms | their respective rooms | respective means belonging to each one separately | C2 |
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The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.