Discourse markers such as well and anyway organise talk, hedges such as sort of soften a claim, and formal markers shape an argument. A marker stands outside the clause, set off by a comma or a pause: To be honest, I'm a bit tired.
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
CheatsheetB2–C2
| Point | Rule | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Spoken markers | each marks a job: start, shift, return, check, correct, conclude | By the way, did you call Anna? | B2 |
| Hedges | soften a word or a claim: sort of, a bit, I'd say | I'd say it's a bit late. | B2 |
| Vague language | or so, and so on and or something leave the detail open | Let's have a coffee or something. | B2 |
| Turn-taking | set phrases hold the floor, interrupt, agree and show you listen | Sorry to interrupt, but the shop closes at five. | B2 |
| Stance | frankly, to be fair and in fact show how the speaker sees a point | To be fair, he did say sorry. | C1 |
| Academic hedging | tend to, may and suggest fit a claim to its evidence; boosters raise it | Prices tend to rise in summer. | C1 |
| Indirectness | soften a request or a disagreement: I was wondering if, with all due respect | I was wondering if you could help me. | C1 |
| Distancing | allegedly, reportedly and so-called credit a claim to others | The man allegedly took the car. | C1 |
| Understatement and irony | not bad and not exactly say less than they mean; the tune shows it | How was the film? — Not bad. | C2 |
| Formal markers | that said, to that end and by the same token link the steps of a formal argument | The cost is high. That said, the benefits are clear. | C2 |
| Metadiscourse | preview, review and reformulate in a long talk | I'd like to begin by thanking you all. | C2 |
| Trap | according to names a source; give your own view with in my opinion | In my opinion, the plan is weak. | C1 |
OverviewB2
- A discourse marker organises talk or shows the speaker's attitude; the clause keeps its meaning without it. Well, I'm not sure.
- The same marker can do several jobs, and the situation shows which. Anyway, as I was saying, we leave at nine. / Anyway, that's it for today.
- Linkers such as however and therefore join clauses. See Conjunctions and Linkers.
Spoken markers by functionB2
| Job | Markers | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Starting or shifting | well / right / OK / so / now / anyway | Right, let's begin. | B2 |
| Continuing | and / then / so / I mean / you see / you know | I can't come. You see, I have to work. | B2 |
| Changing topic | by the way / speaking of / that reminds me | By the way, did you call Anna? | B2 |
| Returning | anyway / as I was saying / to get back to | To get back to the budget, we have two weeks. | B2 |
| Checking | you know? / right? | It's a long way, you know? ↗ | B2 |
| Correcting | I mean / or rather / that is | We met on Monday, I mean Tuesday. / She lives in Leeds, or rather near Leeds. | B2 |
| Concluding | anyway / so / that's it | That's the plan. So, see you at nine. | B2 |
- A marker usually opens its clause; a comma sets it off in writing and a pause in speech. Well, I think we should wait.
- Checking markers come at the end of the clause and take a rising tune. You're coming, right? ↗
- Well, you know and I mean are informal; by the way and as I was saying suit any situation.
- A question tag also checks a statement. See Question Tags.
Hedges and softenersB2
| Softens | Markers | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| A word | sort of / kind of / a bit / rather / somewhat / quite / fairly | He is sort of shy. / The soup is a bit cold. | B2 |
| An opinion | I'd say / I suppose / I guess / if you ask me | I'd say it's too expensive. | B2 |
| Bad news or a refusal | I'm afraid / actually / to be honest | I'm afraid I can't come. | B2 |
| Certainty or source | as far as I know / it seems / apparently | As far as I know, the shop opens at ten. | B2 |
| Exactness | more or less | The work is more or less finished. | B2 |
- Sort of and kind of go before an adjective or a verb and sound informal. The film was kind of sad. / I sort of agree.
- A bit takes an adjective, or of a and a noun. It is a bit late. / It is a bit of a problem.
- Fairly, quite and rather rise in strength; rather often carries mild surprise. The food was fairly good. / The food was quite good. / The food was rather good.
Vague languageB2
| Kind | Markers | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| An amount or a time | or so | We waited ten minutes or so. | B2 |
| The end of a list | and so on / and so forth | We sell hats, scarves, gloves and so on. | B2 |
| An extender with and | and everything / and that | He has a car and everything. | B2 |
| An extender with or | or something / or anything / or whatever | We could go for a walk or whatever. | B2 |
| An approximate description | something like that | She is a nurse, something like that. | B2 |
| A vague noun | stuff / thing | I need to buy some stuff for the trip. | B2 |
- Or anything follows a negative statement; or something follows a positive statement or an offer. I haven't got a pen or anything. / Do you want a drink or something?
- Vague language suits friendly speech; formal writing gives the exact name or number.
Turn-takingB2
| Move | Words | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Filling a pause | er / um | It was, um, about ten years ago. | B2 |
| Holding the floor | let me think / how shall I put it | How shall I put it? It was a surprise. | B2 |
| Interrupting politely | Sorry to interrupt, but … / Can I just say … | Sorry to interrupt, but the shop closes at five. | B2 |
| Agreeing in part | I see what you mean, but … | I see what you mean, but it costs too much. | B2 |
| Disagreeing gently | I'm not so sure | It's the best plan. — I'm not so sure. | B2 |
| Showing you listen | uh-huh / I see / really | I got the job! — Really? ↗ | B2 |
- A backchannel word is short, and the speaker keeps the turn. First I went to Leeds. — Uh-huh.
Stance markersC1
| Stance | Markers | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Frankness | frankly / honestly / to tell the truth | Frankly, I found the book dull. | C1 |
| Fairness to the other side | to be fair / mind you / then again | To be fair, he did say sorry. / The hotel was noisy. Mind you, it was cheap. | C1 |
| A reason to accept | after all | Let her go. After all, she is an adult. | C1 |
| A fact that corrects or surprises | as a matter of fact / in fact / actually | I thought he was rich. Actually, he has no money. | C1 |
| Whatever happens | in any case | In any case, we have until Friday. | C1 |
| A bright side or a minimum | at least | At least it didn't rain. / Call me at least once a week. | C1 |
| Restating | in other words | He was let go. In other words, he was fired. | C1 |
| A loose fit | so to speak / as it were / in a sense | He is, so to speak, the boss's right hand. | C1 |
- Mind you and then again follow a statement and add a point that weakens it. The film was long. Then again, it was good.
Hedging and boosting in academic writingC1
| Device | Words | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| A hedging verb | tend to / appear to / seem to | Prices tend to rise in summer. | C1 |
| A modal verb | may / might / could | The change may reduce costs. | C1 |
| A reporting verb | suggest / indicate | The survey suggests that most people agree. | C1 |
| A probability phrase | it is likely that / it is possible that | It is likely that demand will grow. | C1 |
| A limiting adverb | to some extent / largely / generally / on the whole | The project was largely a success. | C1 |
| An attitude adverb | arguably / presumably | This is arguably the best result so far. | C1 |
| A booster | clearly / undoubtedly / it is evident that | The figures clearly show a rise. | C1 |
- A hedge fits the strength of a claim to its evidence; a booster raises it.
- A claim can take a booster and a hedge together. The data clearly show a link, but it may not hold for adults.
- Academic writing uses tend to, may and suggest; sort of and I guess belong to speech.
- The modals of possibility are in May and Might.
Indirectness and politenessC1
| Move | Phrase | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Asking for help | I was wondering if … / I don't suppose you could … | I was wondering if you could help me. / I don't suppose you could lend me a pen? | C1 |
| Disagreeing | With all due respect, … / I take your point, but … | With all due respect, I think the figures are wrong. / I take your point, but we have no time. | C1 |
| Refusing or giving bad news | Unfortunately, … / I'm afraid … | Unfortunately, the post has been filled. / I'm afraid we are fully booked. | C1 |
- After I was wondering if, the clause keeps statement order and usually takes could or would. I was wondering if you could send it today.
- Unfortunately opens formal bad news; I'm afraid does the same in speech.
- Would and could soften a request. See Would.
Distancing and attributionC1
| Marker | Shows | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| allegedly | a claim made but not proved | The man allegedly took the car. | C1 |
| reportedly | a report the writer has not checked | The film reportedly cost ten million. | C1 |
| supposedly | a belief the writer doubts | This is supposedly the best café in town. | C1 |
| so-called | a name that may not fit | His so-called friends never helped. | C1 |
| according to | another person or document as the source | According to the report, sales fell. | C1 |
| it is + said + that + clause | a general report with no named source | It is said that the mayor will resign. | C1 |
- Allegedly and reportedly stand before the main verb or at the start of the clause. The company has reportedly closed. / Reportedly, the company has closed.
- A passive reporting verb with to puts a claim at a distance: She is said to speak six languages.
- Reporting verbs are in Reported Speech.
Understatement, irony and implicationC2
| Device | Meaning | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| A bit of a | a big problem, said lightly | The holiday was a bit of a disaster: we missed the flight. | C2 |
| Not bad | good, often very good | How was the film? — Not bad. | C2 |
| Not exactly | no, or only in part | Are you ready? — Not exactly. I haven't started. | C2 |
| Rather | more than expected | That was rather a surprise. | C2 |
| Quite as a reply | full agreement, in British English | It's a shame they lost. — Quite. | C2 |
| Hardly the best | a poor one | That is hardly the best way to start. | C2 |
| Irony | the opposite of the words, shown by the tune and the situation | Look, it's pouring. — Lovely weather! ↗↘ | C2 |
| Implication | a remark that asks for action | It's a bit cold in here. — I'll close the window. | C2 |
- Understatement says less than it means, and the situation completes the meaning.
- The tune of the voice carries the meaning: the same words can praise or criticise.
- The tunes are in Connected Speech and Intonation.
Markers of formal speech and writingC2
| Job | Markers | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Conceding, then turning | be that as it may / having said that / that said | The cost is high. That said, the benefits are clear. | C2 |
| Drawing a consequence | in light of this | In light of this, we ask for more time. | C2 |
| Giving the purpose | to that end | The aim is to cut costs. To that end, we shall close two offices. | C2 |
| Adding a parallel point | by the same token / in the same vein | He expects loyalty; by the same token, he gives it. / In the same vein, she thanked the staff. | C2 |
| Speaking bluntly | to put it bluntly | To put it bluntly, the plan has failed. | C2 |
| Stating the obvious | needless to say / it goes without saying | Needless to say, we shall pay on time. | C2 |
| Summing up | by and large / all in all | By and large, the trip was a success. | C2 |
| Setting the precision | strictly speaking / broadly speaking | Strictly speaking, a tomato is a fruit. / Broadly speaking, prices are falling. | C2 |
- A formal marker opens its sentence and takes a comma.
- Formal markers suit lectures, reports and essays; chat prefers well and anyway.
Metadiscourse in extended speechC2
| Move | Phrase | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Previewing the plan | I'd like to begin by + ‑ing | I'd like to begin by thanking you all. | C2 |
| Stating the main claim | What I want to argue is + that + clause | What I want to argue is that cities need more trees. | C2 |
| Referring back | as I mentioned earlier | As I mentioned earlier, the budget is fixed. | C2 |
| Promising to return | I'll come back to this | I'll come back to this after the break. | C2 |
| Restating | that is / put differently | The test is cheap; that is, it costs under a pound. / Prices rose; put differently, we pay more. | C2 |
| Listing the members | namely | There are two options, namely rent or buy. | C2 |
| Sharpening | to be more precise | It took a year, or, to be more precise, thirteen months. | C2 |
- Namely lists every member of a group; for example gives only some. Two groups pay, namely students and parents. ≠ Some groups pay, for example students.
Typical errorsB2–C2
| Wrong | Right | Rule | |
|---|---|---|---|
| As far I know, the shop opens at ten. | As far as I know, the shop opens at ten. | as far as I know has two as | B2 |
| It's a bit problem. | It's a bit of a problem. | a bit takes an adjective, or of a and a noun | B2 |
| He is a sort of shy. | He is sort of shy. | sort of before an adjective takes no a | B2 |
| Actually, the shop is closed for repairs. | At the moment, the shop is closed for repairs. | actually adds a fact that differs from what the listener expects; at the moment means now | B2 |
| According to me, the plan is weak. | In my opinion, the plan is weak. | according to names another source; your own view takes in my opinion | C1 |
| These results prove that sleep helps memory. | These results suggest that sleep helps memory. | suggest and indicate fit most academic claims; prove needs complete evidence | C1 |
| The results are sort of surprising. | The results are somewhat surprising. | writing uses somewhat or rather where speech uses sort of | C1 |
| The result may possibly suggest a link. | The result may suggest a link. | a claim takes one hedge; a second hedge empties it | C1 |
| Needless to say, the meeting has moved to Friday. | Please note that the meeting has moved to Friday. | needless to say introduces what the listener already knows | C2 |
| Some groups pay, namely students. | Some groups pay, for example students. | namely lists every member; for example gives some | C2 |
| I'd like to begin by to thank you all. | I'd like to begin by thanking you all. | by is a preposition, so the ‑ing form follows | C2 |
| He works hard; by the same token, his brother is lazy. | He works hard; on the other hand, his brother is lazy. | by the same token adds a point from the same reason; contrast takes on the other hand | C2 |
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The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.