Compounds join two words into one meaning, and conversion gives a word a new class with no change of form. A number in a compound adjective keeps its noun singular: a ten-minute walk, a five-year-old boy.
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.
CheatsheetB2–C2
| Point | Rule | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Compound noun | the last word is the head; the first word narrows it | a bus stop / a swimming pool | B2 |
| Compound adjective | a singular noun after a number; a participle after a noun or adverb | a ten-minute walk / home-made jam / a well-known author | B2 |
| Conversion | a word changes class with no change of form; endings are regular | I'll email you. / Let's go for a run. | B2 |
| Short forms | clippings and blends are words; initialisms take a or an by sound | I go to the gym. / an MP | B2 |
| Meaning relation | the first noun gives the material, purpose, place, agent or time | a gold ring / a bus driver | C1 |
| Plural modifier | a few modifiers keep a plural form | a sports car / a women's magazine | C1 |
| Reduplication | the vowel changes in the repeat; i comes before a or o | zigzag / ping-pong | C1 |
| Productive element | an element such as ‑free, ‑proof or ‑led makes new adjectives | a sugar-free drink | C1 |
| Binomial | the order is fixed by length, sound or custom | fish and chips / null and void | C2 |
| Compound or phrase | a compound takes first-word stress and can mean more than its parts | a ˈblackbird ≠ a black ˈbird | C2 |
| Creative conversion | nouns become verbs and phrases become modifiers for one occasion | They gifted us a painting. / an I-told-you-so look | C2 |
| Trap | the noun after a number stays singular | a five-year-old boy | B2 |
Form: compound nounsB2
| Pattern | Compounds | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| noun + noun | toothbrush / bus stop / football | We wait at the bus stop. | B2 |
| adjective + noun | blackboard / software / shortcut | The teacher wrote on the blackboard. | B2 |
| V-ing + noun | swimming pool / washing machine / waiting room | The washing machine is broken. | B2 |
| noun + V-ing | sunbathing / babysitting / house-hunting | She earns extra money from babysitting. | B2 |
| verb + particle | check-in / breakdown / takeaway (US: takeout) | A breakdown delayed us by an hour. | B2 |
| noun + preposition + noun | mother-in-law / editor-in-chief / passer-by | My mother-in-law lives in Leeds. | B2 |
- The last word is the head; the first word tells which kind. A toothbrush is a kind of brush.
- Closed, hyphenated and open spellings all occur; the dictionary sets which one a compound takes. bedroom / mother-in-law / post office
- A phrasal verb is two words; the noun made from it is one word or hyphenated. We check in at six. ≠ The check-in desk opens at six.
Form: compound adjectivesB2
| Pattern | Compounds | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| number + hyphen + singular noun | five-year-old / three-course / two-bedroom | We took a ten-minute walk. / They rented a two-bedroom flat (US: apartment). | B2 |
| noun + participle | home-made / hand-knitted / man-made | She sells home-made jam. | B2 |
| adverb + participle | well-known / hard-working / fast-moving | She is a well-known author. | B2 |
| adjective + participle | long-lasting / good-looking / old-fashioned | This paint is long-lasting. | B2 |
| noun + adjective | world-famous / lifelong / snow-white | It is a world-famous museum. | B2 |
- The noun after a number stays singular in a compound adjective. a five-year-old boy / a three-course meal
- The first word carries the comparison. well-known → better-known / well-known → best-known / good-looking → better-looking
- Hyphens in compound adjectives: Punctuation and Capital Letters. Their place before or after a noun: Adjectives and Adjective Order.
Compound verbsB2
| Source | Verbs | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| back-formation: a noun compound loses its ending | babysitter → babysit / sightseeing → sightsee / proofreader → proofread | I babysit for my neighbours on Fridays. | B2 |
| conversion: a noun compound used as a verb | brainstorm / carpool / kick-start | Let's brainstorm some ideas. | B2 |
| two words joined as a verb | spoon-feed / hand-pick / double-check | Please double-check the address. | B2 |
- A compound verb inflects like its last word. babysit → babysat / spoon-feed → spoon-fed / kick-start → kick-started
ConversionB2
| Direction | Words | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| noun → verb | email / text / google / bottle | I'll email you the photos. | B2 |
| verb → noun | run / walk / drink / look | Let's go for a run. | B2 |
| adjective → verb | calm / clean / empty | Please empty your pockets. | B2 |
- A noun made from a verb often follows have, take or go for. have a look / take a walk / go for a swim
- A converted verb takes the regular endings. google → googled / email → emailed / text → texted
- Some noun and verb pairs differ in stress. an ˈincrease ≠ to inˈcrease
- More pairs: Sounds and IPA.
Shortened words and blendsB2
| Kind | Words | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| clipping | influenza → flu / examination → exam / gymnasium → gym / refrigerator → fridge | She is good at maths (US: math). | B2 |
| blend | breakfast + lunch → brunch / smoke + fog → smog / motor + hotel → motel / Britain + exit → Brexit | We had brunch at eleven. | B2 |
| acronym, said as a word | NATO /ˈneɪtəʊ/ · laser · radar | The laser cut through the metal. | B2 |
| initialism, said letter by letter | BBC / UK / FAQ / DVD | The answer is on the FAQ page. | B2 |
- Choose a or an by the first sound of an initialism. an MP / an FAQ / a UK visa
- An initialism adds ‑s with no apostrophe. CD → CDs / MP → MPs
- British style writes an initialism without full stops. BBC / UK / NATO
Meaning relations in noun compoundsC1
| Relation | Compound | Paraphrase | |
|---|---|---|---|
| material | a gold ring | a ring made of gold | C1 |
| purpose | a tea cup | a cup for tea | C1 |
| place | the city centre (US: city center) | the centre of the city | C1 |
| agent | a bus driver | a person who drives buses | C1 |
| time | morning coffee | coffee in the morning | C1 |
| topic | a history book | a book about history | C1 |
| Compound | One reading | Another reading | |
|---|---|---|---|
| a French teacher | a teacher of French | a teacher from France | C1 |
| a Chinese restaurant owner | the owner of a Chinese restaurant | an owner who is Chinese | C1 |
- Context, and in speech stress, shows which reading is meant.
- Break a long chain with a preposition, so that each noun has one job. a student exam preparation course ≠ a course to prepare students for exams
- A compound names a kind; 's or of names an owner or a whole. a bus ticket / the manager's office / the roof of the house
- Owner or whole: Possessive 's.
Noun modifiers that keep a pluralC1
| Kind | Compounds | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| a plural that names a class | sports car / clothes shop / goods train | He drives a sports car. | C1 |
| a plural with its own meaning | savings account / arms race / customs officer | She opened a savings account last year. | C1 |
| an irregular plural with 's | women's magazine / men's shoes / children's book | She reads a women's magazine on the train. | C1 |
- The plural names a whole class or set, and the head noun can still be plural. a sports car / two sports cars
- The 's of a classifying modifier: Possessive 's.
ReduplicationC1
| Kind | Words | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| the same word twice | hush-hush / so-so / no-no | The deal is hush-hush. / The food was so-so. | C1 |
| a change of vowel | flip-flop / tick-tock / zigzag / ping-pong | The clock went tick-tock. / We played ping-pong after lunch. | C1 |
| a rhyme | hocus-pocus / razzle-dazzle / willy-nilly | The magician said hocus-pocus. / Don't spend money willy-nilly. | C1 |
- With a change of vowel, i comes first and a or o follows. zigzag / ping-pong / tick-tock
- Reduplications are informal and often imitate a sound or a movement. The tap went drip-drop all night.
Productive second elementsC1
| Element | Meaning | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑free | without | a sugar-free drink | C1 |
| ‑proof | protected against | a waterproof coat | C1 |
| ‑friendly | good or safe for | a child-friendly café | C1 |
| ‑led | directed by | a teacher-led class | C1 |
| ‑based | centred on | a home-based job | C1 |
| ‑related | connected with | a stress-related illness | C1 |
| ‑wise | as regards, informal | Money-wise, we are fine. | C1 |
| ‑minded | with that attitude | an open-minded manager | C1 |
| ‑like | similar to | She moved with catlike grace. | C1 |
| ‑worthy | deserving of | It is a newsworthy story. | C1 |
- A hyphen binds each compound in a chain of modifiers before a noun. a low-cost, family-run hotel
- Two compounds that share their last part leave the first with a hanging hyphen. a two- or three-bedroom flat (US: apartment)
Frozen binomialsC2
| Order set by | Binomials | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| the shorter word first | salt and pepper / bed and breakfast / time and money | Pass the salt and pepper, please. | C2 |
| the higher vowel first | this and that / in and out / give and take | There was a lot of give and take in the talks. | C2 |
| custom | fish and chips / black and white / ladies and gentlemen | We had fish and chips by the sea. / Good evening, ladies and gentlemen. | C2 |
| a legal pair of near-synonyms | aid and abet / cease and desist / null and void | The contract is now null and void. | C2 |
- A frozen binomial keeps its order in every sentence. It was a matter of life and death.
Headless compoundsC2
| Pattern | Compounds | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| adjective + noun | redhead / paperback / greenhorn | She is a redhead. | C2 |
| verb + noun | pickpocket / scarecrow / killjoy / turncoat | The pickpocket ran off with my wallet. | C2 |
| adjective + plural noun | lazybones / smarty-pants | Get up, you lazybones! | C2 |
- The head lies outside the compound: a redhead names the person who has red hair. A redhead sat beside me.
Compare: compound and phraseC2
| Point | Compound | Phrase | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Meaning | a blackbird (= a kind of bird) | a black bird (= any bird that is black) | C2 |
| Stress | a ˈblackbird | a black ˈbird | C2 |
| Degree word | the first part takes none | a very black bird | C2 |
| Idiom | a hot dog (= a sausage in a bun) | a hot dog (= a dog that is hot) | C2 |
- The meaning of a compound can lie beyond its parts: butterfly names an insect. A butterfly landed on the flower.
- Stress in compounds: Sounds and IPA.
Creative conversionC2
| Kind | Where | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| a noun used as a verb | social media, business and sport | Do you friend people you have never met? / They gifted the museum a painting. / She medalled (US: medaled) in the 200 metres. | C2 |
| a phrase used as a modifier | journalism | His I-told-you-so smile annoyed her. | C2 |
| a phrase used as a modifier | advertising | Taste the fresh-from-the-oven difference. | C2 |
- A nonce compound serves one occasion, and hyphens bind its words into one modifier.
Typical errorsB2–C2
| Wrong | Right | Rule | |
|---|---|---|---|
| a ten-minutes walk | a ten-minute walk | the noun after a number stays singular | B2 |
| She sells home-make jam. | She sells home-made jam. | the second part is a participle | B2 |
| He babysitted the children. | He babysat the children. | a compound verb inflects like its last word | B2 |
| a MP | an MP | the first sound of MP is a vowel, so it takes an | B2 |
| two CD's | two CDs | an initialism takes ‑s with no apostrophe | B2 |
| a saving account | a savings account | this modifier keeps its plural form | C1 |
| a woman magazine | a women's magazine | an irregular plural takes 's as a modifier | C1 |
| a two or three bedroom flat | a two- or three-bedroom flat | a hanging hyphen shows the shared last part | C1 |
| a teacher-lead class | a teacher-led class | ‑led is the participle of lead | C1 |
| chips and fish | fish and chips | a frozen binomial keeps its order | C2 |
| gentlemen and ladies | ladies and gentlemen | the greeting keeps its order | C2 |
| a very blackbird | a very black bird | only the phrase takes a degree word | C2 |
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The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.