Participle clauses use ‑ing, having with a past participle, or a past participle alone, to give time, reason, result, condition and description. Without a subject of its own, a participle clause takes the subject of the main clause: Opening the box, Maria found a note. Having finished lunch, we left.
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CheatsheetB2–C2
| Point | Rule | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Forms | ‑ing is active, having + past participle is earlier, a past participle is passive | Walking home, I met Tom. / Having finished lunch, we left. / Written in 1990, the book is old. | B2 |
| Meanings | time, reason, result or an accompanying action | Feeling tired, she went to bed. / He dropped the plate, breaking it. | B2 |
| After a conjunction | while, when, before, after, since, on and by take ‑ing | Before signing, read the contract. | B2 |
| With a noun | with and without give the noun a participle or complement of its own | She sat with her arms crossed. / With the lights off, the room felt cold. | C1 |
| Own subject | being joins a subject of its own to the clause | It being Sunday, the shops were closed. | C1 |
| Condition and concession | a past participle, provided, supposing or though opens it | Used properly, the product is safe. / Though warned, he went anyway. | C1 |
| Result | thereby + V-ing names the result of the whole main clause | Prices rose, thereby forcing shops to close. | C1 |
| Absolute phrases | a noun and a participle or adjective, with no verb, set the scene | Weather permitting, we will eat outside. / Her work finished, she left. | C2 |
| Comment clauses | fixed phrases comment on the sentence and keep their wording | Strictly speaking, a tomato is a fruit. | C2 |
| After a noun | a participle after a noun, or a chain of them, adds detail | The problem posed by rising costs, compounded by falling demand, forced the firm to close. | C2 |
| Subject | the clause shares the subject of the main clause | Opening the box, Maria found a note. | B2 |
| Trap | a different doer needs a full clause or a new main subject | Walking down the road, he was hit by a car. | B2 |
OverviewB2
- A participle clause replaces a full clause with a participle form and usually leaves out its subject. Because she felt tired, she went to bed. = Feeling tired, she went to bed.
- Participle clauses are most common in writing; speech often uses a full clause instead.
- Participles that follow a noun are also in Relative Clauses.
Form: participlesB2
| Form | Pattern | Meaning | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present active | V-ing | at the same time as the main action, or just before it | Waiting at the gate, she checked her phone. | B2 |
| Present passive | being + past participle | at the same time, with a passive meaning | Being told to wait, she sat down. | B2 |
| Perfect active | having + past participle | finished before the main action | Having got (US: gotten) home, she cooked dinner. | B2 |
| Perfect passive | having been + past participle | finished before the main action, with a passive meaning | Having been warned, he took a coat. | B2 |
| Past participle | past participle | a passive meaning, with being left out | Seen from above, the town looks small. | B2 |
| Negative | not + V-ing | not comes before the participle | Not knowing the way, she asked a driver. | B2 |
| Negative perfect | not + having + past participle | not comes before having | Not having eaten all day, he felt weak. | B2 |
- The passive is in Passive Voice, the perfect in Perfect Tenses and irregular participles in the irregular verbs table.
Use: ‑ing clausesB2
| Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| Time: two actions at once | Walking down the street, I met Tom. | B2 |
| Time: one action straight after another | Taking out her key, she opened the door. | B2 |
| Reason | Feeling tired, she went to bed. | B2 |
| An accompanying action after the main verb | He sat there, staring at the wall. / She came in carrying a tray. | B2 |
| Result: the consequence of the main action | He dropped the plate, breaking it. | B2 |
Use: after a conjunctionB2
| Word | Meaning | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| while | two actions at the same time | While waiting for the bus, I read the news. | B2 |
| when | at the time of an action | When leaving the house, check the windows. | B2 |
| before | an action that comes next | Before signing, read the contract. | B2 |
| after | an action that is over | After leaving school, she worked abroad. | B2 |
| since | from a past event until now | Since moving here, I have made many friends. | B2 |
| on | immediately after an event | On arriving, we phoned our parents. | B2 |
| by | the means of doing something | By working hard, she passed the exam. | B2 |
- before and after already show the order, so the plain ‑ing form is normal. After eating, we washed up.
- More linkers followed by ‑ing are in Conjunctions and Linkers.
Use: past participle clausesB2
| Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| A passive meaning: something was done to the subject | Written in 1990, the book is still popular. | B2 |
| A feeling or reaction of the subject | Surprised by the news, she sat down. | B2 |
| A state, often with an adjective and its complement | Tired of waiting, he left. | B2 |
- The V-ed participle names who feels; the V-ing participle names what causes the feeling.
The subject of the clauseB2
| Rule | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| The doer is the subject of the main clause | Opening the box, Maria found a note. | B2 |
| A passive participle describes that subject as the receiver | Found in a drawer, the key looked old. | B2 |
| Another doer needs a full clause | When we left the house, it began to rain. | B2 |
| Or the doer becomes the main subject | Walking down the road, he was hit by a car. | B2 |
Position and punctuationB2
| Position | Rule | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Before the main clause | a comma follows the clause | Feeling hungry, we stopped for lunch. | B2 |
| Inside the main clause | a comma stands on each side | Maria, feeling hungry, ordered soup. | B2 |
| After the main clause, as a separate action or result | a comma comes before the clause | He dropped the plate, breaking it. | B2 |
| After the main clause, closely linked to its verb | no comma | She spent the evening watching films. | B2 |
Clauses with their own subjectC1
| Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| being after a noun phrase: reason or time | The weather being fine, we went out. | C1 |
| there being: reason | There being no time left, we stopped. | C1 |
| it being with a day, a time or a condition | It being Sunday, the shops were closed. | C1 |
| having and a past participle after a noun phrase: an earlier action | The guests having left, she tidied up. | C1 |
- The clause has a subject of its own, so the main clause may have a different one.
- These clauses are formal; speech and plain writing use because or as instead. As the weather was fine, we went out.
With and without a nounC1
| Pattern | Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| with + noun + V-ing | an action in progress, a cause or a time | With the weather improving, we decided to walk. | C1 |
| with + noun + past participle | a position or state of the noun | She sat with her arms crossed. | C1 |
| with + noun + adjective / adverb | a state, a place or a detail in place | With the lights off, the room felt cold. / She slept with the window open. | C1 |
| without + noun + V-ing | something that does not happen | He left without anyone noticing. | C1 |
- The noun takes ‑ing when it acts and a past participle when it receives the action. With the sun shining, we ate outside. / With the work finished, she went home.
Use: condition and concessionC1
| Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| Condition: a past participle alone | Used properly, the product is safe. | C1 |
| Condition: provided, providing, supposing and assuming as conjunctions | Provided (that) you arrive early, you will get a seat. / Assuming the train is on time, we will arrive at six. | C1 |
| Concession: although or though and a participle | Though warned twice, he went anyway. | C1 |
| A basis for a statement: given, considering, judging by | Given the circumstances, the result is fair. / Judging by the sky, it will rain. / Taking everything into account, we did well. | C1 |
- given, considering and judging by name the speaker's basis, so no matching subject is needed.
Use: result with thereby and thusC1
| Pattern | Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| thereby + V-ing | a result, in a formal tone | Prices rose sharply, thereby forcing many shops to close. | C1 |
| thus + V-ing | a result that follows in the argument | She paid early, thus avoiding the fee. | C1 |
- The clause follows a comma and names the effect of the whole main clause.
- More result linkers are in Conjunctions and Linkers.
Compare: full clause and participle clauseC1
| Point | Full clause | Participle clause | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Time | As she walked to work, she listened to music. | Walking to work, she listened to music. | C1 |
| Reason | Because he was ill, he stayed at home. | Being ill, he stayed at home. | C1 |
| Active relative clause | The woman who is standing by the door is my aunt. | The woman standing by the door is my aunt. | C1 |
| Passive relative clause | The report that was written last year is online. | The report written last year is online. | C1 |
- A participle clause names no conjunction, so context decides between time, reason and condition.
Compare: ‑ing and havingC1
| Point | Opening the door | Having opened the door | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sequence | the actions overlap or follow at once | the first action is finished before the second | C1 |
| Example | Opening the door, he saw a light. | Having opened the door, he stepped inside. | C1 |
Absolute constructionsC2
| Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| A noun and ‑ing: a condition or circumstance | Weather permitting, we will eat outside. / Time allowing, we will visit the castle. | C2 |
| A noun and a past participle: a completed event | Her work finished, she left. | C2 |
| A pronoun and a past participle: that done, this said | That done, we went home. | C2 |
| A fixed summing up | All things considered, it was a good year. | C2 |
- An absolute construction usually opens the sentence and sets the scene for the main clause.
- being drops out, so a noun can stand directly before an adjective or adverb. Dinner (being) over, they went out.
Fixed comment clausesC2
| Phrase | Meaning | Example | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Strictly speaking | to be exact | Strictly speaking, a tomato is a fruit. | C2 |
| Frankly speaking | to be honest | Frankly speaking, I did not enjoy the film. | C2 |
| Generally speaking | in most cases | Generally speaking, trains here run on time. | C2 |
| Putting it mildly | the truth is stronger | Putting it mildly, the service was slow. | C2 |
| Needless to say | it is obvious | Needless to say, we were delighted. | C2 |
| Having said that | despite what I have just said | The hotel is old. Having said that, it is spotless. | C2 |
| Stated simply | in simple terms | Stated simply, the plan failed. | C2 |
- A comment clause is set off by commas and can open or interrupt the sentence. Trains here are, generally speaking, on time.
Participles after nouns and in chainsC2
| Use | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| A past participle after a noun: a shortened passive relative clause | The report written by two experts is online. | C2 |
| An ‑ing form after a noun: a shortened active relative clause | Residents living near the airport complain of noise. | C2 |
| A chain: each participle adds detail to the one before | The problem posed by rising costs, compounded by falling demand, forced the firm to close. | C2 |
| Several clauses joined by and before the main clause | Built in 1850 and restored in 1990, the house is now a museum. | C2 |
- Each participle in a chain describes the noun or clause just before it.
- News and academic writing pack information this way; speech uses separate sentences.
- Relative clauses shortened to a participle are also in Relative Clauses.
Typical errorsB2–C2
| Wrong | Right | Rule | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Walking down the road, a car hit him. | Walking down the road, he was hit by a car. | the doer of the participle is the subject of the main clause | B2 |
| Written the letter, she posted it. | Having written the letter, she posted it. | an earlier active action takes having + past participle | B2 |
| Surprising by the news, she sat down. | Surprised by the news, she sat down. | the person who feels takes V-ed, not V-ing | B2 |
| After to leave the house, she locked the door. | After leaving the house, she locked the door. | a conjunction or preposition takes V-ing, never to and the base verb | B2 |
| The weather was fine, we went out. | The weather being fine, we went out. | a comma cannot join two full clauses; the first takes being | C1 |
| She sat with her arms crossing. | She sat with her arms crossed. | a noun that receives the action takes the past participle | C1 |
| Weather permitted, we will eat outside. | Weather permitting, we will eat outside. | the fixed phrase keeps the ‑ing form | C2 |
| Strictly spoken, a tomato is a fruit. | Strictly speaking, a tomato is a fruit. | a comment clause keeps its fixed form | C2 |
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The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.Start over
The AlphabetA0The 26 letters of the English alphabet and their names, used to spell words aloud.