Cheatsheet C1

Foundations

Sounds and IPA

Point	Rule	Example
IPA	one symbol for each sound, written between slashes	book /bʊk/
Spelling and sound	spelling and sound often differ: photo has no /p/ and no /h/	photo /ˈfəʊtəʊ/
ː / ˈ	ː makes a vowel long; ˈ comes before the stressed syllable	food /fuːd/ · teacher /ˈtiːtʃə/
Consonant symbols	some symbols differ from the spelling: ch → /tʃ/, j → /dʒ/, y → /j/	chair / job / yes
A1Stress in two syllables	most nouns and adjectives: first syllable; many verbs: second	ˈteacher / beˈgin
A1-tion / -sion / -ic	stress the syllable before the ending	inforˈmation / fanˈtastic
A1Weak vowel	unstressed vowels are often the weak /ə/	about /əˈbaʊt/
A1US	/ɒ/ becomes /ɑː/, /əʊ/ becomes /oʊ/, and /r/ is pronounced after vowels	hot /hɑːt/ · car /kɑːr/
B2Word families	each suffix sets its own stress, so the stress moves	ˈphotograph / phoˈtographer / photoˈgraphic
B2Noun and verb	the noun stresses the first syllable, the verb the second	a ˈrecord ≠ to reˈcord
C1Secondary stress	long words add ˌ before the main stress ˈ	information /ˌɪnfəˈmeɪʃn/
A1Trap	short /ɪ/ and long /iː/ make different words	ship /ʃɪp/ · sheep /ʃiːp/
A1Trap	th is /θ/ or /ð/	think /θɪŋk/ · this /ðɪs/

Numbers

Point	Rule	Example
0–12	each has its own word; -teen starts at 13	zero / eleven / twelve
-teen	13–19 add stressed -teen; 13, 15 and 18 change their first part	thirteen /θɜːˈtiːn/ · fifteen · eighteen
-ty	tens end in -ty and the stress is on the first part	thirty /ˈθɜːti/ · forty
21–99	ten + hyphen + unit	twenty-one / forty-five
hundred, thousand, million	they stay singular after a number; and comes after hundred	two hundred and fifty / five million
Ordinals	the order of things: first, second, third; from 4 add -th	My flat is on the second floor. / the fourth of July
Short ordinals	number + the last two letters of the word	1st / 2nd / 3rd / 4th
Compound ordinals	only the last word changes	twenty-first / a hundred and second
Phone numbers	say each digit; 0 is oh; two equal digits are double	077 → oh double seven
Comma and point	a comma separates thousands; a point separates decimals	1,500 / 2.5 → two point five
B2Fractions	number plus ordinal; -s above one	a third / three quarters
B2Before a noun	number + hyphen + singular noun	a ten-minute walk / a five-year-old boy
C1Ratios	say the colon as to; shares use in	3:1 → three to one / one in three
Trap	five, nine, twelve and twenty change their spelling in ordinals	fifth / ninth / twelfth / twentieth
Trap	forty drops the u that fourteen keeps	fourteen ≠ forty

Connected Speech and Intonation

Point	Rule	Example
Weak forms	function words are weak inside a clause, strong at its end	a cup of tea /ə ˈkʌp əv ˈtiː/
Sentence stress	content words carry the stress; function words stay weak	We want to go to the park.
Linking	a final consonant joins the next vowel; /r/, /j/ and /w/ link vowels	turn off /tɜː.nɒf/
Elision and assimilation	t and d drop between consonants; a final consonant matches the next	next day /neks deɪ/ · ten boys /tem bɔɪz/
Intonation	falls for statements and wh-questions, rises for yes-no questions	Where do you live? ↘ / Do you live here? ↗
Contrastive stress	stress the word that carries the contrast	I didn't say he stole her money.
C1Informal reductions	you merges with d and t; gonna for going to; h drops	did you /ˈdɪdʒuː/ · going to gonna
C1Attitude	the same words change meaning with the tune	Really? ↗ / Really? ↘↗
C1Focus	new information takes the stress; given words lose it	Who broke it? — Tom broke it.
C1Trap	statements fall; a final rise sounds like a question	I live in Leeds. ↘

Spelling Rules

Point	Rule	Example
Doubling	double the final consonant after one stressed vowel	begin → beginning / visit → visited
Silent e	drop it before a vowel, keep it before a consonant	hope → hoping / hope → hopeful
consonant + y	y becomes i, but stays before -ing	study → studied / study → studying
ie and ei	ie for /iː/, but ei after c	believe / receive
-able / -ible	-able after a whole word, -ible after a stem that is not one	comfortable / possible
Prefixes	both parts keep all their letters; in- becomes il-, im-, ir-	mis + spell → misspell / in + possible → impossible
Silent letters	some spellings keep a letter that is not pronounced	knee / lamb / night
British and US	British -our, -re, -ise; US -or, -er, -ize	colour (US: color) / centre (US: center)
Trap	-ful has one l, so -fully has two	She works carefully.
C1Sound /ʃn/	-tion; -sion after l, n, r; -ssion after a short vowel	action / tension / mission
C1Same sound	the grammar of the sentence picks the spelling	The dog wagged its tail. / It's late.
C1Trap	two doubled pairs: cc and rr, cc and mm	occurrence / accommodate

Punctuation and Capital Letters

Point	Rule	Example
Sentence end	full stop after an indirect question, question mark after a direct one	She asked where I was going. / Where are you going?
Comma: clauses	after an opening clause; before but, so or yet	If it rains, we stay in. / I was tired, so I went home.
Comma: asides	a pair of commas round extra information	Anna, who lives here, is a nurse.
Apostrophe	contractions and possession; none in plurals or in its	I don’t know. / two CDs / the dog wagged its tail
Colon and semicolon	colon introduces; semicolon joins related clauses	Two options: stay or go. / Tom likes tea; Ana likes coffee.
Hyphen and dash	hyphen before the noun, none after; en dash for ranges	a well-known author / the years 1990–2000
Quotation marks	single marks; the comma stands inside them before the speaker	‘Come in,’ she said.
Capital letters	names, nationalities, languages, days, months; not seasons	She teaches Spanish on Mondays in summer.
C1Commas and meaning	commas add information; without them the clause identifies	my brother who lives in Leeds ≠ my brother, who lives in Leeds,
C1Opening phrases	comma after an opening participle or absolute phrase; none before that	Having finished, she left. / The work done, they went home.
C1Dash, colon, semicolon	colon explains, semicolon balances, dash adds emphasis	I knew the answer – but I said nothing.
Trap	its shows ownership; it’s = it is or it has	The dog wagged its tail. ≠ It’s raining.

Nouns and determiners

Articles: a, an, the

Point	Rule	Example
Form	a before a consonant sound, an before a vowel sound	a book / an apple
a / an	one thing, a job, or a first mention	She's a doctor.
the	a thing we both know, or already mentioned	There's a cat. The cat is black.
the	the only one; superlatives and ordinals	the sun / the best / the first time
A2the	rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges	the Thames / the Atlantic / the Alps
A2the	countries with a plural name, Kingdom or States	the UK / the USA / the Netherlands
B1the	the + adjective means a group of people	the rich / the young
No article	plural and uncountable nouns in general; meals; names	I like dogs. / We have lunch at two.
A2No article	home, work, school, bed; transport after by	go home / at work / by bus
B1No article	hospital, prison, church for their purpose; the for the building	He's in hospital.
B2Generic	plurals and abstract nouns take none; the names a species	Dogs are loyal. / The tiger is endangered.
B2Places	the for island groups, deserts, hotels, ships; none for lakes, streets	the Sahara / Lake Garda
C1Names	the for a family or a band; none for airports	the Smiths / Heathrow
C1Abstract noun	an adjective lets it take a / an	a deep understanding
Trap	the first sound decides, not the letter	a university / an hour
Trap	most countries take no article	I live in Spain.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Point	Rule	Example
Countable	a / an in the singular, -s in the plural	a book / two books
Uncountable	masses, materials, ideas: no a / an, no plural	I like music.
Verb	a singular verb, also for news	The water is cold. / The news is good.
Unit	count it with a unit; the unit takes the plural	a glass of water / a piece of advice / two cups of coffee
A2Groups of things	groups of things are uncountable too	furniture / luggage / homework
A2Both	some nouns are both; the meaning changes	I like coffee. ≠ Two coffees, please.
B2Collective nouns	a singular verb for the group, a plural verb for its members	The team is winning. ≠ The team are arguing.
B2Nouns in -s	some take a singular verb, some a plural verb	Mathematics is hard. / My savings are small.
C1Abstract noun	an adjective lets a few take a / an	She has a good knowledge of French.
C1Plural-only nouns	some have a meaning of their own	good manners / high spirits
Trap	advice and information: some, or a piece of	a piece of advice / some advice
Trap	work is uncountable; a job is countable	She has a good job.

Quantifiers: some, any, much, many

Use	Plural countable noun	Uncountable noun
Affirmative	some apples / a lot of apples	some milk / a lot of milk
Negative	not any apples / not many apples	not any milk / not much milk
Question	any apples? / many apples?	any milk? / much milk?
How…?	How many apples?	How much milk?
A2Offer, request	Would you like some apples?	Can I have some milk?
A2A small number or amount	a few apples	a little milk
A2None: no + noun	no apples	no milk
B1Not enough	few apples	little milk
B1None: none of + noun	None of the apples	None of the milk
B2All of it	all the apples	all the milk
B2A large number or amount	a large number of apples	a great deal of milk
C1Almost none	hardly any apples	hardly any milk

This, That, These, Those

Use	Near	Far
Before a singular noun	this bag	that bag
Before a plural noun	these shoes	those shoes
Alone, with is	This is my bag.	That is my bag.
Alone, with are	These are my keys.	Those are my shoes.
Introducing people	This is Ana.	—
On the phone	Hi, this is Tom.	Is that Ana? (US: Is this Ana?)
A1Instead of a known noun	I like this one.	I like that one.
A1Time: now / then	this morning	that day
A1Something just said or done	—	That's great!
B2Speech and text	This is what I mean: we need time.	That's why I called.
B2Degree	I didn't expect it to be this good.	It isn't that bad.
C1Replacing a noun in a comparison	—	warmer than that of England
C1Summary noun	This development worried us.	—

Possessive 's

Point	Rule	Example
Singular noun	+ 's	Ana's car
Plural in -s	+ '	my parents' house
Irregular plural	+ 's	the children's room
Two owners	's on the last name	Tom and Ana's flat
's or of	's for people and animals, of for things	the end of the film
Without the noun	someone's home or shop	at the doctor's
Word order	owner first, thing after, no article	my sister's phone
B2Time and measure	's or ' with periods of time and amounts	a week's holiday / ten minutes' walk
B2Double genitive	of and the owner with 's: one of several	a friend of Tom's
C1Classifying 's	's shows the kind of thing, not an owner	a women's magazine
C1Names in -s	's or ' after a name in -s	Dickens's novels / Socrates' ideas
Trap	Whose asks about the owner; Who's means who is	Whose bag? ≠ Who's there?

Noun Phrases and Nominalisation

Point	Rule	Example
Slots	predeterminer, determiner, number, adjective, noun modifier, head noun	all the other ten new bus drivers
Order	ordinal before cardinal; all, both and half before the determiner	the first three days / all my friends
After the noun	prepositional phrase, to-infinitive, that-clause, of-phrase, apposition	a chance to win / the house on the hill
Before the noun	singular noun modifier, -ing or -ed adjective; three at most	a bus ticket / a broken window
As the head	an adjective, one or mine can stand for the whole phrase	The injured were treated quickly. / I'll take the red one.
C1Nominalisation	a noun names the action; its object follows with of	They destroyed the city. → the destruction of the city
C1Light verb	a general verb carries the action of the noun	make a decision / carry out an analysis
C1Shell noun	a noun sums up an earlier clause	The company cut prices. This move surprised its rivals.
C1Register	verbs in speech, nouns in formal and academic writing	We analysed (US: analyzed) the data. ≠ An analysis of the data was performed.
Trap	the unit stays singular before a noun	a five-day course

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Point	Pronouns	Rule	Example
Subject	I / you / he / she / it / we / they	goes before the verb	She's a teacher.
A1Object	me / you / him / her / it / us / them	goes after a verb or a preposition	Can you help me?
Possessive + noun	my / your / his / her / its / our / their	goes before a noun, with no article	My name is Tom.
A1Possessive alone	mine / yours / his / hers / ours / theirs	stands alone, without a noun	This bag is mine.
Weather, time	it	no real subject: it fills the place	It's cold today.
B2Anticipatory it	it	stands for a later infinitive or clause	It is important to rest.
B2Singular they	they	one person, gender unknown; a plural verb	If a student is late, they must sign in.
C1Case	I / me	object form after a preposition, even in a pair	This is between you and me.
C1Generic pronouns	one / you / we / they	one is formal, you informal	One should check the facts. / You never know.
Trap	its	its has no apostrophe; it's = it is	The dog wants its food.
A1Trap	yours / hers / ours / theirs	no apostrophe	Is this yours?

Verbs

Have and Have Got

Form	have	have got
Affirmative: I / you / we / they	I have a car.	I've got a car.
Affirmative: he / she / it	She has a car.	She's got a car.
Negative: I / you / we / they	I don't have a car.	I haven't got a car.
Negative: he / she / it	He doesn't have a car.	He hasn't got a car.
Question: I / you / we / they	Do you have a car?	Have you got a car?
Question: he / she / it	Does she have a car?	Has she got a car?
Short answer	Yes, I do. / No, I don't.	Yes, I have. / No, I haven't.
Actions: only have	I have breakfast at 8.	—
Style	neutral, also in writing	informal, mostly speech
B2Causative: have / get + noun + past participle	I had my hair cut. / I got the car fixed.	—
B2A person does it	I had him check it. / I got him to help.	—
C1Object + -ing	The joke had us laughing.	—
C1Fixed uses	Rumour has it that she is leaving.	—

There Is and There Are

Form	Singular	Plural	Uncountable
Affirmative	There is a park.	There are two parks.	There is some milk.
Short form	There's a park.	—	There's some milk.
Negative	There isn't a park.	There aren't any parks.	There isn't any milk.
Question	Is there a park?	Are there any parks?	Is there any milk?
How many, how much	—	How many parks are there?	How much milk is there?
Short answer	Yes, there is. / No, there isn't.	Yes, there are. / No, there aren't.	Yes, there is. / No, there isn't.
B2Other verbs and tenses	There seems to be a problem.	There have been two accidents.	There will be some rain.
B2Complement	There's someone waiting.	There are two windows broken.	There's nothing to do.
C1Participle clause	There being no objection, we went ahead.	—	—
C1Formal verbs	There followed a long silence.	There are said to be ghosts here.	—

Irregular Verbs Table

Pattern	Base form	Past simple	Past participle
All three forms are the same	put	put	put
-ought / -aught	buy	bought	bought
Past and participle end in -d	make	made	made
B1Final -d becomes -t	build	built	built
A2Long vowel shortens, -t added	keep	kept	kept
/iː/ shortens to /e/	meet	met	met
Vowel changes, past = participle	sit	sat	sat
Participle = base form	come	came	come
i → a → u	drink	drank	drunk
Participle in -en	take	took	taken
participle in -n / -ne	go	went	gone
Use	—	finished actions: I went to Madrid.	after have: I have gone there.
B2Two accepted forms	learn	learnt / learned	learnt / learned
B2Confusing pairs	lie / lay	lay / laid	lain / laid
B2A compound takes the forms of its base verb	undertake	undertook	undertaken
C1Less frequent verbs follow the same patterns	weave	wove	woven

Phrasal Verbs

Point	Rule	Example
Phrasal verb	verb + a particle; the particle gives the verb a new meaning	I'm looking for my keys.
Separable	a noun goes before or after the particle	Turn off the light. / Turn the light off.
Inseparable	the object always follows the particle	Look after the baby.
Daily routine	wake up, get up, put on, take off, turn on	She puts on her coat.
Going and coming	go out, come in, come back, pick up	I pick up the children at three.
Looking and finding out	look for, look after, look up, find out, fill in	Look up the word.
B1Continuing and stopping	carry on, run out of, get on with, look forward to	We ran out of milk.
B2Three-part verbs	verb + particle + preposition; the object follows the preposition	I can't put up with the noise.
C1Nouns from phrasal verbs	a noun stresses the first part: breakdown	The car had a breakdown.
Trap	a separable verb takes a pronoun in the middle	Turn it off.
B1Trap	look forward to takes a noun or the -ing form	I look forward to seeing you.

Gerund vs Infinitive

Form	Rule	Example
verb + -ing	after enjoy, finish, mind, avoid, suggest	I enjoy cooking.
verb + to + V	after want, decide, hope, plan, need	They decided to move.
want / need / would like + person + to + V	a person can come before to	I want you to come.
preposition + -ing	after a preposition: interested in, before, without	Wash your hands before eating.
-ing as the subject	the -ing form works as a noun	Swimming is good for you.
look forward to + -ing	to is a preposition here	I look forward to seeing you.
stop + -ing / to + V	-ing means he quit; to means he paused in order to smoke	He stopped smoking. / He stopped to smoke.
remember + -ing / to + V	-ing recalls the action; to means do not forget	I remember locking it. / Remember to lock it.
try + -ing / to + V	-ing tests it; to makes an effort	Try adding salt. / I tried to open it.
Either form	like, love, hate, prefer: almost the same meaning	I like swimming. / I like to swim.
B2verb + person + to + V	after advise, tell, allow, warn, force	She told me to wait.
B2make / let / have + person + V	the base verb follows, with no to	The film made me cry.
B2Fixed -ing patterns	no use, no point in, can't help, object to	It's no use complaining.
B2Perfect and passive forms	to have done, having done, to be done, being done	I'm glad to have met you.
B2wh-word + to + V	after know, ask, tell, show, decide	I don't know what to do.
C1seem / appear / tend + to + V	also to be doing and to have done	She appears to have been crying.
C1Bare infinitive after fixed phrases	had better, would rather, rather than, why not	You had better leave now.

Objects and Complements

Point	Rule	Example
Two objects	person first, or last after to or for	He gave her a book. / He gave a book to her.
To or for	to after give, send, show; for after buy, make, cook	She sent a card to him. / He made a cake for her.
Object and complement	the object takes an adjective, a noun or as and a noun	This makes me happy. / They elected him president. / They regard him as a hero.
Both ways	break, open, start, move: with an object or without	The window broke. / He broke the window.
Pairs	rise, lie and arrive take no object; raise, lay and reach need one	Prices rise. / They raise prices.
Reciprocal	meet, marry and kiss take the other person directly	We met. / I met him.
C1Object and -ing	catch, find, keep and leave take an object and an -ing form	I caught him stealing. / Don't keep me waiting.
C1Result	an adjective after the object says how the action leaves it	She wiped the table clean. / He shouted himself hoarse.
C1Adverbial	put, live, last and cost need a place, a time or an amount	Put it on the table. / It costs five pounds.
C1Fake objects	a noun from the verb's own root, or it with no meaning	She lived a happy life. / They hit it off.
Trap	explain, suggest and say take the person after to	She explained the rule to me.
C1Trap	last takes a length of time directly, with no for	The film lasts two hours.

Tenses

Tense map

Tense	Form	Meaning	Example
Present simple	V / V-s	habits, facts, permanent states	I always walk to work.
Present continuous	am / is / are + V-ing	now, temporary situations	I'm working now.
A2Present perfect	have / has + V-ed	past events that matter now	I've never been to Rome.
Past simple	V-ed / irregular	finished events	I worked yesterday.
A2Past continuous	was / were + V-ing	in progress at a past moment	I was working at eight.
A2Used to	used to + V	past habits and states, over now	I used to swim when I was a child.
B1Past perfect	had + V-ed	before another past event	She had left before I arrived.
Going to	am / is / are going to + V	plans, predictions with evidence	We're going to cook tonight.
Present continuous for the future	am / is / are + V-ing	arrangements	I'm leaving tomorrow.
A2Will	will + V	decisions, offers, promises, opinions	I think it'll rain.
A2Present simple for the future	V / V-s	timetables	The train leaves at six.
B1Future continuous	will be + V-ing	in progress at a future moment	This time tomorrow I'll be flying.
B2Present perfect continuous	have / has + been + V-ing	an activity up to now	I've been working all day.
B2Past perfect continuous	had been + V-ing	the cause, or the length of time, before a past moment	She was tired. She had been working all night.
B2Future perfect	will have + past participle	completed by a future time	By Friday I'll have finished.
C1Future perfect continuous	will have been + V-ing	the length of an activity up to a future time	By June I'll have been working here for ten years.
C1Historic present	V / V-s	vivid narration of past events	Suddenly the door opens.

Simple Tenses

Tense	Question			Statement			Negative
Tense	Helper	Subject	Verb	Subject	Helper	Verb	Subject	Helper	Verb
A2Future	Will	I	work?	I	will	work.	I	won't	work.
		you		You			You
		he		He			He
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
		we		We			We
		they		They			They

Present	Do	I	work?	I		work.	I	don't	work.
	Do	you		You		work.	You	don't
	Does	he		He		works.	He	doesn't
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
	Do	we		We		work.	We	don't
	Do	they		They		work.	They	don't

Past	Did	I	work?	I		worked.	I	didn't	work.
		you		You			You
		he		He			He
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
		we		We			We
		they		They			They

B2C1

Point	Rule	Example
Narrative present	jokes, headlines, plot summaries, commentary, reporting verbs	A man walks into a pub.
C1Historic present	a vivid shift to the present inside a past account	Suddenly the door opens.
C1Distance and politeness	the past simple softens a request or a question about now	Did you want to see me?
C1Performative verbs	saying the verb does the act	I promise to be on time.

Continuous Tenses

Tense	Question			Statement			Negative
Tense	Helper	Subject	Verb	Subject	Helper	Verb	Subject	Helper	Verb
B1Future	Will	I	be working?	I	will be	working.	I	won't be	working.
		you		You			You
		he		He			He
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
		we		We			We
		they		They			They

Present	Am	I	working?	I	am	working.	I	am not	working.
	Are	you		You	are		You	aren't
	Is	he		He	is		He	isn't
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
	Are	we		We	are		We	aren't
	Are	they		They	are		They	aren't

A2Past	Was	I	working?	I	was	working.	I	wasn't	working.
	Were	you		You	were		You	weren't
	Was	he		He	was		He	wasn't
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
	Were	we		We	were		We	weren't
	Were	they		They	were		They	weren't

B2C1

Point	Rule	Example
Always with the continuous	repeated, annoying or surprising actions	He's always losing his keys.
Verbs with two meanings	only the activity meaning takes the continuous	I think so. / I'm thinking about it.
Polite and tentative	the continuous softens a request or a hope	I was wondering if you could help.
Continuous infinitive	a guess about now: modal or seem, then be and the -ing verb	She must be working.
C1Narrative present	anecdotes, commentary and stage directions	So I'm walking home and I see Tom.
C1State verbs for emphasis	a feeling stressed as new or temporary	I'm loving it.

Perfect Tenses

Tense	Question			Statement			Negative
Tense	Helper	Subject	Verb	Subject	Helper	Verb	Subject	Helper	Verb
Present perfect	Have	I	worked?	I	have	worked.	I	haven't	worked.
	Have	you		You	have		You	haven't
	Has	he		He	has		He	hasn't
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
	Have	we		We	have		We	haven't
	Have	they		They	have		They	haven't

B2Present perfect continuous	Have	I	been working?	I	have been	working.	I	haven't been	working.
	Have	you		You	have been		You	haven't been
	Has	he		He	has been		He	hasn't been
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
	Have	we		We	have been		We	haven't been
	Have	they		They	have been		They	haven't been

B1Past perfect	Had	I	worked?	I	had	worked.	I	hadn't	worked.
		you		You			You
		he		He			He
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
		we		We			We
		they		They			They

B2Past perfect continuous	Had	I	been working?	I	had been	working.	I	hadn't been	working.
		you		You			You
		he		He			He
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
		we		We			We
		they		They			They

B2Future perfect	Will	I	have worked?	I	will have	worked.	I	won't have	worked.
		you		You			You
		he		He			He
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
		we		We			We
		they		They			They

C1Future perfect continuous	Will	I	have been working?	I	will have been	working.	I	won't have been	working.
		you		You			You
		he		He			He
		she		She			She
		it		It			It
		we		We			We
		they		They			They

B2C1

Point	Rule	Example
Result or duration	perfect simple: a result or a number; continuous: a process or its length	I've written five emails. / I've been writing all morning.
First time and superlatives	present perfect after it's the first time and after a superlative with ever	It's the first time I've flown.
Completed by a future time	future perfect, with by or by the time	By Friday I'll have finished.
C1News and details	the present perfect announces; the past simple gives the details	The minister has resigned. He said the pressure was too great.
Trap	verbs of state take the simple perfect	I've known her for years.

Future Forms

Point	Rule	Example
am / is / are going to + V	plans and intentions; predictions with evidence	We're going to visit Granada. / Look at those clouds. It's going to rain.
am / is / are + V-ing	present continuous: a fixed arrangement, with a future time	I'm seeing the dentist on Friday.
A2will / 'll / won't + V	decisions now, offers, promises, opinions (I think)	It's cold. I'll close the window. / I think she'll win.
A2V / V-s	present simple: timetables	The train leaves at 6:15.
B1Prediction	opinion or guess (I think): will; evidence now: going to	I think it'll be a good year. / Watch out! You're going to fall.
B1Arrangement or intention	fixed arrangement: present continuous; intention: going to	I'm meeting Sam at 8. / I'm going to learn Italian.
B2About to and due to	the next moment; a scheduled time	The film is about to start. / The train is due to arrive at nine.
B2Time clauses	a present tense follows when, until and as soon as	I'll call you as soon as I've finished.
B2Future in the past	was going to, would, or was and the -ing verb	I was going to call you, but I forgot.
C1Formal and news style	be to, set to, expected to: official plans and likely events	The Prime Minister is to visit Rome.
Trap	plans take going to	I'm going to buy a car tomorrow.
A2Trap	will makes questions by itself	Will you come?

Modal verbs

Can and Could

Point	Rule	Example
Form	subject + can + base verb; one form for every subject	She can swim.
Negative	can't; the full form is cannot, one word	I can't swim.
Question	Can + subject + base verb; no do	Can you swim?
Ability	can for skills	I can cook pasta.
Permission	can allows, can't forbids; ask with Can I…?	You can park here. / Can I open the window?
Request	Can you…? asks for help	Can you help me, please?
A2Past ability	could for general ability in the past	I could run fast when I was young.
A2Polite request	Could is more polite than can	Could you open the door, please?
A2Possibility	could says what may happen	It could rain later.
A2Other tenses	be able to takes the place of can	I'll be able to help you tomorrow.
B2Past success	managed to or was able to for one success; couldn't in the negative	We managed to book a table.
C1Adverbs	can hardly means almost not; could well means quite possible	I can hardly believe it.
A2Trap	a single success in the past takes was / were able to	The fire was big, but we were able to escape.

Must and Have To

Point	Rule	Example
Form: must	subject + must + V; one form for every subject	She must study.
Form: have to	have to, but has to with he, she, it	We have to leave. / He has to leave.
Question, negative	have to takes do / does / did and then the base form	Do you have to leave? / She doesn't have to leave.
must	the speaker's own view or a written rule	I must save more money. / Visitors must sign in.
have to	the situation or another person decides; common in speech	I have to get up at six for work.
mustn't	forbidden	You mustn't use your phone here.
don't have to	not necessary: you can choose	You don't have to come.
B2Have got to	have got to means have to in informal British speech	I've got to go.
B2Other forms	will have to is the future; have had to is the perfect	You will have to pay by Friday.
B2Other phrases	be supposed to and be required to say what rules ask	You are supposed to arrive at nine.
C1Insistence	must can insist or show irritation	You must come for dinner.
Trap	had to is the past of must	I had to work on Saturday.

Should

Point	Rule	Example
Form	subject + should + base verb; one form for every subject	You should see a doctor.
Negative	shouldn't; no do	You shouldn't work so late.
Question	Should + subject + base verb; no do	Should I take the bus? / What should I do?
Advice	should for a good idea, shouldn't for a bad one	You should drink more water. / You shouldn't eat so much sugar.
Opinion	what you think is right or good	I think the government should build more parks.
Should or must	should: advice or a mild duty; must: a strong obligation or a rule	You should wear a coat. / You must wear a seat belt.
B2Ought to	ought to means the same as should; questions with it are rare	You ought to rest.
B2Had better	had better gives advice with a warning, about now or later	You'd better leave now.
B2Expectation	should says what is probably true	She should be home by now.
C1Comment	should follows odd, strange and surprising in a that clause	It's odd that he should say that.
Trap	a negative opinion puts don't on think	I don't think you should go.

May and Might

Point	Rule	Example
Form	subject + might / may + base verb; one form for every subject	She might come.
Negative	might not / may not	He might not come.
Possibility	something possible, now or in the future	She might be at home. / We might go to the beach.
Might or may	might sounds a little less sure	It might rain. / It may rain.
Possibility question	ask with think + will	Do you think it will rain?
B1Permission	May + subject + base verb asks; may allows in formal rules	May I use your phone? / Guests may use the pool until 10.
B1Certainty	will is sure, probably very likely, may / might possible	She will come. / She'll probably come. / She may come.
B2Present deduction	must be says it is true; can't be says it is false	The lights are on. She must be home.
B2Likely	be likely to and may well say it is quite probable	She is likely to win.
C1Concession	may admits a point before but	He may be rich, but he isn't happy.
Trap	may be follows the subject; maybe starts a clause	He may be late. / Maybe he is late.

Would

Point	Rule	Example
Want	would like + noun / to base verb; short form 'd	I'd like a coffee, please. / I'd like to book a table.
Question and offer	Would + subject + V; no do	Would you like some cake?
B1Form	subject + would / 'd + V; negative wouldn't	She would help. / I wouldn't go.
B1Polite request	Would you…? asks politely for help	Would you pass the salt, please?
B1Imagined situation	with if: if + past simple, would + base verb	I would buy a boat. / If I had more time, I would learn Italian.
B1Past habit	repeated actions; the sentence needs a past time frame	When I was a child, we would play outside every day.
B2Would rather	would rather states a preference; the negative is would rather not	I'd rather stay in tonight.
B2Would you mind	Would you mind takes -ing; with if it takes the past simple	Would you mind opening the window?
B2Hedged opinion	I would say and I would think soften an opinion	I would say it's too expensive.
C1Indirectness	would be grateful if makes a formal request	We would be grateful if you could reply.
B1Trap	used to for a past state: live, be, have, know	When I was young, I used to live in Paris.

Modal Verbs in the Past: must have, should have

Point	Rule	Example
Form	subject + must / should / could + have + past participle; have never changes	She should have called.
Deduction: sure	must have: it happened; can't have: it did not	She must have left. / He can't have known.
Deduction: possible	may have, might have or could have: perhaps it happened	They might have missed the bus.
Regret and criticism	should have: not done; shouldn't have: done and wrong	I should have asked. / I shouldn't have shouted.
Unused chance	could have or might have: a chance that nobody took	You could have told me.
Unneeded action	needn't have: it was done and was not necessary	I needn't have hurried.
Unreal past	would have for the result of an unreal past condition	If I had known, I would have called.
C1Passive and continuous	after any modal: have been + past participle / V-ing	It must have been lost. / She can't have been sleeping.
C1Adverb inside	may well have: quite likely; can't possibly have: impossible	She may well have forgotten. / You can't possibly have finished.
C1Expectation and estimate	should have: expected by now; would have: an estimate	It should have arrived by now. / That would have been ten years ago.
C1Plan that failed	was to have + past participle: planned, but it did not happen	The bridge was to have opened in May.
Trap	write have or 've, never of	You should've called.

Need and Dare

Point	Rule	Example
Need: main verb	subject + need / needs + to + V; do in questions and negatives	She needs to rest.
Need: modal	subject + needn't + V; no -s, no to	You needn't come.
Not necessary	needn't = don't need to = don't have to	You don't need to pay.
Need and a job to do	needs washing = needs to be washed	The car needs washing.
Needn't have	it was done and was not necessary	I needn't have waited.
Dare: main verb	subject + dare / dares + to + V; do in questions and negatives	He didn't dare to ask.
Dare: modal	daren't or dare not + base verb; Dare I…?	I daren't ask. / Dare I ask?
Fixed phrases	I dare say: probably; How dare you: anger	I dare say you are right. / How dare you speak to me like that!
C1Formal need	need hardly say, need not, if need be, needs must	We can stay longer, if need be.
C1Dare: challenge	dare + person + to + V challenges someone	She dared him to jump.
Trap	main-verb need takes to and a base verb	He needs to go.

Will and Shall

Point	Rule	Example
Assumption	will guesses what is true now, from what the speaker knows	That'll be Tom at the door. / She won't be home yet.
Habit	what is always or typically true	Oil will float on water. / He will sit there for hours.
Willingness	will is willing, won't refuses, for people and things	The shop will change it. / The car won't start.
Request	Will you…? asks directly, Would you…? is softer	Will you open the window?
Shall question	Shall + I / we + V offers, suggests or asks what to do	Shall I open the window? / Let's go, shall we?
C1Guess in progress	will be + V-ing guesses what is happening now	Don't call yet. They'll be having dinner.
C1Guess about the past	will have + past participle guesses about something finished	You'll have heard the news.
C1Persistent habit	stressed will shows an annoying habit	He will keep interrupting.
C1Formal shall	shall after I or we, and in rules and promises	I shall be there. / Passengers shall not smoke.
Trap	an offer with I takes shall	Shall I carry your bag?

Sentence building

Word Order

Point	Rule	Example
Order	subject + verb + object + place + time	My sister buys bread in the shop every day.
Subject	the subject is always present	It is cold.
Adjective	comes before the noun	I have a red car.
A1Time first	a time phrase can start the sentence, often with a comma	Last summer, we went to Italy.
A1Frequency adverb	before the main verb, after be	I always eat breakfast. / She is always late.
B2Adverbials	front, middle (after an auxiliary or be) or end	She is probably late.
B2Several adverbials	manner + place + time	She sang beautifully at the party last night.
B2Phrasal verb	a pronoun object goes between the verb and the particle	She turned it off.
C1Information	given information first; new and long parts last	She told the class what had happened on the trip.
C1Focus	only, even and just stand before the word they limit	Only Tom borrowed the car. ≠ Tom borrowed only the car.
A1Trap	place comes before time	I went to London yesterday.

Questions and negatives

Point	Rule	Example
Negative: be, modals	subject + be / modal + not	They are not at home. / He can't drive.
Question: be, modals	be / modal + subject	Are they at home? / Can he drive?
Negative: other verbs	subject + don't / doesn't / didn't + base verb	He doesn't like jazz.
Question: other verbs	do / does / did + subject + base verb	Did you call her?
do, does, did	I / you / we / they → do, he / she / it → does, past → did	Do you like jazz?
Wh-question	wh-word + auxiliary + subject + base verb	Where do you live? / Where are you from?
Subject question	no do / does / did; the verb takes the tense	Who called you?
Short answer	repeat the be, modal or auxiliary verb	Yes, she can. / No, she can't.
B2Negative question	helper + n't + subject; expects yes or shows surprise	Isn't it lovely? / Haven't you finished?
C1Fronted negative	after not only / no sooner / nowhere the auxiliary comes first	No sooner had we sat down than the phone rang.
Trap	after do / does / did the verb is the base form	Did you go?

Conjunctions and Linkers

Point	Rule	Example
and, or	and adds an idea, or gives a choice; usually no comma before them	I like tea and coffee. / Do you want tea or coffee?
but, so	but contrasts, so gives a result; usually a comma before them	I like tea, but I don't like coffee. / I'm tired, so I go to bed.
because	gives the reason; a clause follows	I'm tired because I work late.
A2when, before, after	a time clause; the present simple talks about the future	When I arrive, I'll call you.
A2also, too	also goes before the main verb and after be; too goes at the end	I also speak French. / I speak French too.
B1however	starts a new sentence; a comma follows	It was raining. However, we went out.
B1so that	gives a purpose; a clause follows	I left early so that I could catch the bus.
B1unless	unless means if … not	We stay in unless it stops raining.
B2despite, in spite of	a noun or an -ing form follows; despite the fact that takes a clause	Despite the rain, we went out.
B2Linking adverbs	full stop or semicolon before, comma after	It was late; however, we stayed.
C1Fronted concession	though or as follows the adjective that starts the sentence	Young though he was, he led the team.
A2Trap	because of is followed by a noun	We stayed in because of the rain.
B1Trap	although joins two clauses and replaces but	Although it was raining, we went out.

Conditionals

Point	Rule	Example
Zero: facts	if + present, present	If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.
First: real possibilities	if + present, will + V	If you study, you'll pass.
B1Second: unreal situations	if + past simple, would + V	If I won the lottery, I'd buy a house.
B2Third: unreal past	if + had + past participle, would have + past participle	If I had known, I would have called.
B2Mixed	a past condition with a present result, or the reverse	If I had taken the job, I would be rich now.
The if-clause	present simple, also for the future	If it rains, we'll stay in.
Order	if-clause first: comma; if-clause second: no comma	If it rains, we'll stay in. / We'll stay in if it rains.
B2Other words for if	as long as means only if; in case means as a precaution	Take a coat in case it gets cold.
C1Inversion	Had, were or should first replaces if; formal	Had I known, I would have called.
B1Trap	were for every person, also in advice	If I were you, I'd take the train.
B1Trap	unless means if … not; the verb is affirmative	Unless you hurry, you'll miss the bus.

Relative Clauses

Point	Rule	Example
Form	noun + who / which / that + clause; right after the noun	The woman who lives next door is a nurse.
who, which	who for people, which for things	The woman who lives next door is a nurse. / The book which I bought was cheap.
that	people or things, in defining clauses only	The film that we saw was long.
whose	possession; a noun follows	The man whose car was stolen called the police.
where	places	The café where we met has closed.
Subject pronoun	stays: a verb follows	The girl who speaks French is my cousin.
Object pronoun	can be left out in a defining clause only	The film I saw was long.
Defining	says which one; no commas	The man who called is my uncle.
Non-defining	extra information in commas; who / which / whose / where	Paris, which I visited in May, is beautiful.
B2Fronted preposition	the preposition comes before whom / which; formal	The woman to whom I spoke was kind.
C1Infinitive clause	noun + to + V; the preposition stays at the end	I need someone to talk to.
Trap	where already includes the preposition	The house where I live is old.

Passive Voice

Point	Rule	Example
Form	the object becomes the subject; be + past participle	Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. → Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Present simple	am / is / are + V-ed	English is spoken here.
Past simple	was / were + V-ed	The bridge was built in 1990.
Present perfect	has / have been + V-ed	The window has been broken.
will, can, must	will / can / must be + V-ed	The results will be sent tomorrow.
Negative, question	negative: be + not + V-ed; question: be + subject + V-ed	The room wasn't cleaned. / Was the room cleaned?
Use	unknown or unimportant doer, processes, news, formal writing	My phone was stolen on the train. / Wine is made from grapes.
by / with	by names a new or important doer; with names a tool	The song was written by Adele.
B2Other forms	modal be + V-ed; continuous being + V-ed	The form must be signed. / The road is being repaired.
B2Reporting passive	subject + be said + to + base verb reports opinions	He is said to be rich.
C1Formal writing	the agentless passive reports method and findings	The samples were heated to 80 degrees.
Trap	verbs without an object stay active: happen / arrive / die	The accident happened yesterday.
Trap	use the past participle: made, written, sold, taken	The window was broken.

Reported Speech

Point	Rule	Example
say	say + (that) + clause; no person, or to + person	She said (that) she was tired.
tell	tell + person + (that) + clause	She told me (that) she was tired.
present simple / present continuous	→ past simple / past continuous	He said he worked there. / She said she was waiting.
past simple / present perfect	→ past perfect	He said he had left. / She said she had finished.
will / can / must	→ would / could / had to	He said he would call. / She said she could swim.
No change	would, could, should, might; a fact still true; after says (present)	She said she lives in Paris. / She says she is tired.
Pronouns and time	pronouns follow the speaker; today → that day, tomorrow → the next day	Anna said she was tired.
Questions	yes/no questions take if or whether; wh-questions keep the wh-word	She asked if I liked tea.
Commands	told / asked + person + (not) to + V	He told us not to be late.
B2Reporting verbs	each verb has its own pattern: that-clause, to-infinitive or -ing	She advised me to rest.
C1Distancing	claim, allege, reportedly: the reporter does not vouch for it	The witness claims that she saw the car.
Trap	a reported question has statement order, with no do / does / did	She asked me where I lived.

Question Tags

Point	Rule	Example
Form	positive statement, negative tag; negative statement, positive tag	It's cold, isn't it? / It isn't cold, is it?
Pronoun	auxiliary + pronoun; the pronoun replaces the subject	Tom is late, isn't he?
be	isn't / aren't / wasn't / weren't	They were late, weren't they?
Other verbs	present: don't / doesn't; past: didn't	She works here, doesn't she? / He left early, didn't he?
have, modals	repeat the auxiliary or modal	You've finished, haven't you? / You can swim, can't you?
I am	aren't I	I'm right, aren't I?
Let's, command	Let's → shall we; command → will you	Let's go, shall we? / Open the door, will you?
Use	check something, make conversation or ask politely	You're from Madrid, aren't you?
Intonation	falling ↘: you are sure; rising ↗: a real question	It's a lovely day, isn't it? ↘ / You haven't seen my keys, have you? ↗
B2Claim and same polarity	the tag follows the claim; the same polarity shows suspicion	I don't think he's coming, is he? / So you're a doctor, are you?
C1Echo and informal checks	an echo repeats the auxiliary; right / OK / yeah check informally	I've been to Peru. — Have you?
Trap	nobody / nothing / never make the statement negative: positive tag	Nobody called, did they?

Wishes and Unreal Tenses

Point	Rule	Example
Wish: unreal past	wish + past simple: now or later; past perfect: earlier	I wish I knew her name. / I wish I had called her.
Wish for a change	a change wanted in someone or something	I wish it would stop raining.
If only	the patterns of wish with stronger feeling	If only I had listened.
It's time	It's time + subject + past simple means now	It's time we left.
As if	past simple: not true now; past perfect: not true before; present: possibly true	He talks as if he knew everything.
Would rather	another subject takes the past simple	I'd rather you stayed.
Suppose, what if	suppose + past simple: unlikely; what if + present: possible	Suppose you won the lottery? / What if he says no?
C1Wish about the past	could have for a missed chance; had been + V-ing for an activity	I wish I could have come. / I wish I hadn't been working so hard.
C1In reports	wish becomes wished; the unreal tense stays	He said he wished he had more time.
C1Formal wish	wish for + noun; wish (that) + clause with were	I wish that he were here.
Trap	a state takes the past simple, not would	I wish I had more time.
Trap	it's time + subject takes the past simple	It's time we went.

The Subjunctive

Point	Rule	Example
Form	that + subject + base verb; one form for every person	The school insists that he wear a tie.
Negative and passive	not goes before the verb; the passive is be + past participle	I suggest that he not go. / It is vital that it be checked.
After verbs	suggest, recommend, insist, demand, require and request call for it	The doctor recommends that she rest more.
After adjectives and nouns	essential, vital, important and necessary; nouns such as requirement and proposal	It is essential that everyone be on time.
British and American	American English prefers the bare verb; British English often adds should	We recommend that she should apply. (US: apply)
Were	were follows every subject after if, as if and wish	I wish it were Friday.
Lest	lest is formal and takes the base verb or should	She whispered lest the baby wake.
Trap	suggest takes a that clause or -ing	I suggest that he go. / I suggest going early.

Noun Clauses

Point	Rule	Example
That-clause	that + subject + verb; that drops after common verbs	I know (that) he left.
Wh-clause	wh-word + subject + verb; no do, does or did	Tell me where he lives.
If and whether	if or whether after ask and wonder; whether after a preposition or to	I wonder whether she knows.
Wh-word and to	wh-word + to + V	I don't know what to do.
Embedded question	a polite question starts Could you tell me and keeps statement order	Could you tell me where the station is?
-ever words	words in -ever mean any person, thing, time, place or way that	Take whatever you like.
Exclamation	what or how opens it; the subject comes before the verb	I can't believe how beautiful it is.
C1Noun and clause	the noun names what the clause says: the fact that, the question whether	Despite the fact that it was late, we stayed.
C1After be	The problem is, This is why, That's what + clause	The problem is where to park.
C1After a preposition	a wh-word or whether follows; before that the preposition drops	It depends on whether we can park.
C1Verbs of demand	insist / demand / recommend + that + subject + base verb; British English often adds should	She recommends that he rest.
Trap	a noun clause keeps statement order, with no do	I don't know where the station is.

Participle Clauses

Point	Rule	Example
Forms	-ing is active, having + past participle is earlier, a past participle is passive	Walking home, I met Tom. / Having finished lunch, we left. / Written in 1990, the book is old.
Meanings	time, reason, result or an accompanying action	Feeling tired, she went to bed. / He dropped the plate, breaking it.
After a conjunction	while, when, before, after, since, on and by take -ing	Before signing, read the contract.
C1With a noun	with and without give the noun a participle or complement of its own	She sat with her arms crossed. / With the lights off, the room felt cold.
C1Own subject	being joins a subject of its own to the clause	It being Sunday, the shops were closed.
C1Condition and concession	a past participle, provided, supposing or though opens it	Used properly, the product is safe. / Though warned, he went anyway.
C1Result	thereby + V-ing names the result of the whole main clause	Prices rose, thereby forcing shops to close.
Subject	the clause shares the subject of the main clause	Opening the box, Maria found a note.
Trap	a different doer needs a full clause or a new main subject	Walking down the road, he was hit by a car.

Emphasis and Cleft Sentences

Point	Rule	Example
Emphatic do	do / does / did + base verb carries the stress	She did tell me.
It-cleft	It + be + focus + who / that + clause	It was Tom who broke it.
Wh-cleft	What + clause + be + focus; or reversed: focus + be + what + clause	What I need is a holiday.
Noun frames	all, the thing, the reason and the place open the clause	All I want is peace and quiet.
C1Clause as focus	the focus can be a clause: only when, not until, because	It was only when she left that I realised.
C1Explanatory cleft	rejects one reason and gives the real one	It isn't that I don't like her; it's that I'm busy.
C1Answers	a cleft answers a wh-question; the main stress falls on the focus	Who broke it? — It was Tom.
Trap	who or that replaces the focus: no second subject or object	It was Ana that I met.

Inversion and Fronting

Point	Rule	Example
Order	negative adverbial + auxiliary + subject + verb; do, does or did if there is none	Never have I seen such a crowd. / Rarely does she complain.
Negative adverbials	never, rarely, little, nowhere, not once, on no account	Little did he know what was coming.
Hardly and no sooner	hardly and scarcely take when, no sooner takes than; past perfect first	No sooner had he arrived than it began to rain.
Not only, not until, only	the main clause inverts; the other clause keeps its order	Not until he left did I understand.
So and such	so + adjective or adverb, or such + be, then that	So tired was she that she fell asleep.
Nor and neither	the auxiliary of the first clause, then the subject	She didn't call, nor did she write.
Trap	the subject follows the auxiliary, not the adverbial	Not only did she win, but she also set a record.
Trap	do, does and did take the base verb	Rarely does he come late.

Ellipsis and Substitution

Point	Rule	Example
Agreeing	So / Neither + helper + subject; informally Me too / Me neither	I like tea. — So do I.
So and not	so or not replaces a clause after think, hope and suppose	Is it open? — I think so.
One	one or ones replaces a countable noun	I like the red one.
Do so	do so is formal; do it and do that are informal	I asked him to leave, and he did so.
Coordination	the second clause drops a repeated verb or auxiliary	Tom likes tea and Ann coffee.
To	to stays when its verb goes	Come if you want to.
Reduced clause	the subject and be go after if, when and although	If necessary, call me.
C1Nouns	those, that of and the latter point back to a noun	Prices here are higher than those in town.
C1Speech	the start of a clause goes: the subject and the first auxiliary	Got a minute?
C1A whole clause	it, this, that and which refer to a whole clause	He passed, which surprised us.
C1Short replies	a wh-question gets the missing phrase alone; a stripped clause adds one phrase	Tom left, and Ann too.
Trap	neither and nor are negative, so the auxiliary stays positive	I can't swim. — Neither can I.

Discourse Markers and Hedging

Point	Rule	Example
Spoken markers	each marks a job: start, shift, return, check, correct, conclude	By the way, did you call Anna?
Hedges	soften a word or a claim: sort of, a bit, I'd say	I'd say it's a bit late.
Vague language	or so, and so on and or something leave the detail open	Let's have a coffee or something.
Turn-taking	set phrases hold the floor, interrupt, agree and show you listen	Sorry to interrupt, but the shop closes at five.
C1Stance	frankly, to be fair and in fact show how the speaker sees a point	To be fair, he did say sorry.
C1Academic hedging	tend to, may and suggest fit a claim to its evidence; boosters raise it	Prices tend to rise in summer.
C1Indirectness	soften a request or a disagreement: I was wondering if, with all due respect	I was wondering if you could help me.
C1Distancing	allegedly, reportedly and so-called credit a claim to others	The man allegedly took the car.
C1Trap	according to names a source; give your own view with in my opinion	In my opinion, the plan is weak.

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives and Adjective Order

Point	Rule	Example
adjective + noun	the adjective goes before the noun	She has a new phone.
verb + adjective	the verb is be, look, feel, sound, taste or smell	You look tired.
A2Several adjectives	opinion, size, age, shape, colour, origin, material, purpose	a nice old wooden chair
A2-ed / -ing	-ed: how a person feels; -ing: what causes it	I'm bored. / The film is boring.
B2One position	asleep goes after a verb only, main before a noun only	The baby is asleep. / Use the main door.
B2After the noun	follows -thing and -one words; some adjectives follow a noun	I want something new. / the seats available
B2the + adjective	names a whole group and takes a plural verb	The rich are not always happy.
B2Complement	to and a verb, a that clause or -ing; kind takes of	It is kind of you to help.
C1Modifiers	a hyphenated phrase goes before the noun, a long one after it	an easy-to-use app / a man proud of his son
C1Emphasis	some adjectives strengthen the noun and stand before it	a complete idiot / a sheer waste of time
Trap	one form for singular and plural	two red cars
A2Trap	size before colour, age before material	a big red bag / an old wooden table

Comparatives and Superlatives

Point	Rule	Example
One syllable, or two ending in -y	+ er / + est	Trains are faster than buses. / It's the cheapest.
Spelling	add r after -e; y becomes i; double one final consonant	nice → nicer / happy → happier / big → bigger
Other adjectives of two or more syllables	more + adjective / the most + adjective	This bag is more expensive.
Irregular	good → better → the best / bad → worse → the worst	It's the best film of the year.
comparative + than	compares two things; speech has an object pronoun after than	She is taller than me.
the + superlative + in / of	top of three or more; in a place or group, of a number	She is the tallest in the class.
as + adjective + as / not as + adjective + as	equal; not equal	My flat is as big as yours. / Tea is not as strong as coffee.
B2Modifiers	much and far strengthen a comparative, by far a superlative	It is far cheaper. / It is by far the best.
B2the + comparative + the + comparative	one change brings another	The more you practise, the better you get.
B2Like or as	like resembles; as gives a role or takes a clause	She sings like a professional. / She works as a nurse.
C1Fixed phrases	all the more, none the wiser, the less said the better	I read it and I am none the wiser.
Trap	better and worse are already comparatives	This is better.

Too, Enough, So and Such

Point	Rule	Example
too + adjective / adverb	more than is good; the result follows with to + V	The box is too heavy for me to lift.
adjective + enough / enough + noun	enough follows an adjective and comes before a noun	She is old enough to drive. / We have enough chairs.
so + adjective / adverb	the result follows with that	I was so tired that I fell asleep.
such a + adjective + singular noun / such + adjective + plural noun	such goes with a noun, so with an adjective or adverb	It's such a good film. / They are such nice people.
B2Stronger or weaker	far too and a little too; more than enough, not nearly enough	It is far too hot. / We have more than enough food.
B2Result or purpose	so gives a result; so that and so as to give a purpose	It was so cold that the lake froze. / We left early so that we could get seats.
C1Formal degree	so much so that, to such an extent that, so foolish as to	He was nervous, so much so that he could not speak.
C1something of a + noun	enough of a, not much of a, something of a	She is something of an expert.
Trap	not + adjective + enough	The room is not big enough.
Trap	so many + plural noun	I have so many friends.

Adverbs of Degree, Focus and Attitude

Point	Rule	Example
Degree with adjectives	very goes with gradable adjectives, absolutely with extreme ones	It's very cold. / It's absolutely freezing.
Quite	quite means fairly before a gradable adjective, completely before an extreme one	It's quite good. / I'm quite sure.
Degree with verbs	most precede the verb; very much and a lot follow it	I totally agree. / I like it very much.
Focus	a focus adverb stands next to the word it focuses on	Only Tom came. / Tom came only on Monday.
Still and no longer	still continues; no longer and any more end	She still lives here. / She no longer lives here.
Sentence adverbs	they comment on the whole sentence; a comma follows at the start	Luckily, nobody was hurt.
C1Downtoners	hardly, scarcely and barely are negative: no second negative	I can hardly see.
C1Collocations	the intensifier follows the meaning of the adjective	highly unlikely / deeply concerned
C1Stance adverbs	they show how sure or how fair the speaker is	Arguably, it is her best book.
Trap	an extreme adjective takes absolutely or really	The soup is absolutely delicious.

Prepositions

Time: In, On, At

Point	Rule	Example
at	clock times, night, midday, Christmas, Easter	at 9:30 / at night
on	days, dates and a day with its part of the day	on Monday morning / on 5 May
in	months, seasons, years, morning, afternoon, evening	in January / in summer
Length	the period gets longer from at to on to in	at 7 o'clock / on Monday / in July
No preposition	before this, next, last, every, today, tomorrow	I'm busy this week. / I walk every morning.
B2By and until	by gives a deadline, until a state that continues	Send it by Friday. / I'm away until Friday.
B2For, during, while	for gives the length, during a noun and while a clause	We waited for two hours. / He slept during the film. / The phone rang while he slept.
B2In, within, after	in two days is after two days, within two days is before they end	It arrives in two days. ≠ It arrives within two days.
C1Formal	prior to, following, upon and as of are formal	Prior to the meeting, read the report. / Upon arrival, call the office.
C1Periods	decades, seasons of a year and approximate times	She was born in the early 1990s. / I'll arrive around six.
Trap	dates take on, months take in	My birthday is on 5 May. / It's cold in January.
Trap	the weekend takes at	We relax at the weekend. (US: on the weekend)

Place and Movement

Point	Rule	Example
in	inside a space, in a town or country	in the bag / in Madrid
on	touching a surface	on the table / on the wall
at	a point or a place for its purpose	at the door / at home
Fixed phrases	without the: at home, at work, in bed, to school	She's at work. / I go to work.
behind, near	go straight before the noun	I live near the park.
to / from	movement to and from a place; home follows go directly	We go to the beach. / I go home.
A2in → into / on → onto / at → to	place becomes movement	She goes into the kitchen. / The cat jumps onto the sofa.
A2along, across, through	the path of the movement	We walk across the bridge. / The train goes through a tunnel.
A2arrive	arrive in a city or country; arrive at a building	We arrive in Paris. / I arrive at the office.
A2Transport	get on a bus, train, plane, bike; get in a car, taxi	I get on the bus. / She gets in the taxi.
B2Position and direction	pairs such as between and among, towards and to	She sat between Tom and Ana. / He ran towards the gate.
C1Abstract and formal	states such as under control, and groups such as on behalf of	The fire is under control. / I write on behalf of the team.
Trap	next to and in front of keep to and of	next to the café / in front of the school

Dependent Prepositions

Point	Rule	Example
Verb	verb + preposition + noun; the verb selects the preposition	I depend on my parents.
Adjective	adjective + preposition + noun; learn the pair	She is afraid of spiders.
Noun	noun + preposition + noun; learn the pair	What is the reason for the delay?
After the preposition	a noun, an object pronoun or an -ing form	She insisted on paying.
Questions and passives	the preposition stays with its verb	What are you waiting for?
Two prepositions	the preposition changes the meaning	I'm looking for a map. / She looks after her brother.
C1Participles	participles take fixed prepositions; -ing follows committed to	The film is based on a true story. / We are committed to helping.
C1Finer contrasts	one word, two meanings: responsible for a task, responsible to a person	He is responsible to the manager. / I prefer tea to coffee.
C1Academic nouns	abstract nouns keep one preposition each	the impact on small shops / a link between sleep and memory
C1Formal verbs	formal verbs take fixed prepositions	Staff must comply with the rules. / Costs amount to ten thousand pounds.
Trap	discuss, mention, enter and attend take no preposition	We discussed the plan.
C1Trap	comprise and emphasise take no preposition	The course comprises six units.

Word formation

Prefixes and Suffixes

Point	Rule	Example
Suffixes	-tion / -ment / -ness make nouns; -able / -ful / -ous make adjectives	educate → education / kind → kindness / enjoy → enjoyable
Verb formation	-ise / -ify / -en / en- make verbs	simple → simplify / short → shorten / rich → enrich
Negative prefixes	un- / in- / dis- / non- / mis- negate; in- becomes im-, il-, ir-	happy → unhappy / agree → disagree
Other prefixes	re- again, over- too much, under- too little, ex- former	write → rewrite / cook → overcook / wife → ex-wife
Sound	some suffixes move the stress and shorten the vowel	ˈphotograph → photoˈgraphic / divide → division
Trap	possible takes in-, which becomes im- before p	It is impossible to finish today.
C1Productive suffixes	-ish / -y / -able / -ify / -ism attach freely to new bases	download → downloadable / solid → solidify
C1-ity / -ness	-ity usually follows a Latinate adjective, -ness a native one	possible → possibility / kind → kindness
C1Combining forms	Greek and Latin forms build technical words	biology / geography / telephone
C1Register	Latinate words sound more formal than their native partners	begin = commence / enough = sufficient

Compounds and Conversion

Point	Rule	Example
Compound noun	the last word is the head; the first word narrows it	a bus stop / a swimming pool
Compound adjective	a singular noun after a number; a participle after a noun or adverb	a ten-minute walk / home-made jam / a well-known author
Conversion	a word changes class with no change of form; endings are regular	I'll email you. / Let's go for a run.
Short forms	clippings and blends are words; initialisms take a or an by sound	I go to the gym. / an MP
C1Meaning relation	the first noun gives the material, purpose, place, agent or time	a gold ring / a bus driver
C1Plural modifier	a few modifiers keep a plural form	a sports car / a women's magazine
C1Reduplication	the vowel changes in the repeat; i comes before a or o	zigzag / ping-pong
C1Productive element	an element such as -free, -proof or -led makes new adjectives	a sugar-free drink
Trap	the noun after a number stays singular	a five-year-old boy