Punctuation and Capital Letters

Capital letters and marks such as full stops, commas, apostrophes, colons and quotation marks show where sentences end, how clauses join and who speaks. A comma alone never joins two main clauses: It was late, so we went home. It was late; we went home.

No information at the current level. This view starts at B2: choose B2 or a higher level.

CheatsheetB2–C1

Point	Rule	Example
Sentence end	full stop after an indirect question, question mark after a direct one	She asked where I was going. / Where are you going?	B2
Comma: clauses	after an opening clause; before but, so or yet	If it rains, we stay in. / I was tired, so I went home.	B2
Comma: asides	a pair of commas round extra information	Anna, who lives here, is a nurse.	B2
Apostrophe	contractions and possession; none in plurals or in its	I don’t know. / two CDs / the dog wagged its tail	B2
Colon and semicolon	colon introduces; semicolon joins related clauses	Two options: stay or go. / Tom likes tea; Ana likes coffee.	B2
Hyphen and dash	hyphen before the noun, none after; en dash for ranges	a well-known author / the years 1990–2000	B2
Quotation marks	single marks; the comma stands inside them before the speaker	‘Come in,’ she said.	B2
Capital letters	names, nationalities, languages, days, months; not seasons	She teaches Spanish on Mondays in summer.	B2
Commas and meaning	commas add information; without them the clause identifies	my brother who lives in Leeds ≠ my brother, who lives in Leeds,	C1
Opening phrases	comma after an opening participle or absolute phrase; none before that	Having finished, she left. / The work done, they went home.	C1
Dash, colon, semicolon	colon explains, semicolon balances, dash adds emphasis	I knew the answer – but I said nothing.	C1
Trap	its shows ownership; it’s = it is or it has	The dog wagged its tail. ≠ It’s raining.	B2

Sentence ends and abbreviationsB2

Point	Rule	Example
full stop .	ends a statement or an order	We left at six.	B2
full stop .	ends an indirect question	She asked where I was going.	B2
question mark ?	ends a direct question	Where are you going?	B2
exclamation mark !	ends an exclamation or a strong order; one mark is enough	What a view! / Stop!	B2
abbreviation that keeps the last letter of the word	written without a full stop: Mr, Mrs, Dr, St	Please ask Dr Khan. (US: Please ask Dr. Khan.)	B2
abbreviation that is cut short	a full stop: Prof., etc.; at the end of a sentence it also ends the sentence	Ask Prof. Lee. / We sell pens, paper, etc.	B2
initials and acronyms	written without full stops	She works for the BBC.	B2

CommaB2

A comma	Example
separates the items of a list; the comma before the final and is optional	We bought apples, pears and plums. (US: We bought apples, pears, and plums.)	B2
follows an opening adverbial or clause	If it rains, we stay in. / However, the room was cold.	B2
comes before but, so or yet when it joins two main clauses	The film was long, but we enjoyed it.	B2
opens and closes a non-defining clause or an added phrase	Our neighbour, who is a nurse, helps us. / Tom, our new manager, starts today.	B2
sets off the name of the person addressed	Thanks for your help, Tom. / Tom, come here.	B2
comes before a question tag	It’s cold today, isn’t it?	B2
never stands between a subject and its verb, however long the subject	The man in the grey coat is my uncle.	B2
never joins two main clauses alone: add a conjunction, or use a semicolon or a full stop	It was late, so we left. / It was late; we left. / It was late. We left.	B2

Defining and non-defining clauses: see Relative clauses.

ApostropheB2

Rule	Example
the apostrophe stands for the missing letters of a contraction	I don’t know. / It’s late.	B2
the apostrophe shows the owner; the forms are in Possessive 's	Ana’s car / my parents’ house	B2
plurals of abbreviations and decades take s alone	two CDs / three MPs / in the 1990s	B2
its, whose, hers, yours, ours and theirs show ownership by their form alone	The dog wagged its tail. / That coat is hers.	B2
the apostrophe marks the plural of a single letter	Mind your p’s and q’s.	B2

Colon and semicolonB2

Point	Rule	Example
colon :	introduces a list after a complete clause	There are three options: stay, leave or wait.	B2
colon :	introduces an explanation	I stayed at home: it was raining.	B2
colon :	introduces a quotation	The sign said: ‘Keep out.’	B2
semicolon ;	joins two related main clauses	Tom likes tea; Ana prefers coffee.	B2
semicolon ;	separates list items that contain commas	We visited Leeds, in England; Cardiff, in Wales; and Belfast, in Northern Ireland.	B2

Hyphen and dashB2

Point	Rule	Example
hyphen -	joins a compound modifier before a noun	a well-known author / a five-year-old child	B2
compound after the noun	separate words	The author is well known. / The child is five years old.	B2
en dash –	joins the two ends of a range, with no spaces	the years 1990–2000 / 3–5 July	B2
dash –	a pair sets off an aside; British style spaces an en dash, American style closes up an em dash	Her flat – a tiny studio – is near the station. (US: Her flat—a tiny studio—is near the station.)	B2

Quotation marks and direct speechB2

Rule	Example
British English puts single marks round the words spoken; American English uses double marks	Tom said, ‘I’m tired.’ (US: Tom said, “I’m tired.”)	B2
a comma and a capital letter introduce speech that follows the speaker	She said, ‘Come in.’	B2
a comma, not a full stop, ends speech before the speaker; it stands inside the marks, and ? and ! stay	‘Come in,’ she said. / ‘Where are you going?’ she asked.	B2
each new speaker starts a new line	‘Are you ready?’ asked Tom. — ‘Almost,’ said Ana.	B2
marks go round a title when italics are not possible, as in handwriting	We read ‘Emma’ in class.	B2
marks go round a word used in a doubtful or special sense	He is a ‘friend’ who never calls.	B2

Direct speech turned into reported speech: see Reported speech.

Capital lettersB2

Rule	Example
capital for the first word of a sentence and for the pronoun I	The train was late. / Tom and I were late.	B2
capital for names of people, places and organisations	Ana lives in Madrid.	B2
capital for nationalities and languages	My teacher is Polish and speaks French.	B2
capital for adjectives made from names	a Victorian house	B2
capital for days, months and holidays	We meet on Friday in March, and at Easter.	B2
small letter for seasons	We go skiing in winter.	B2
capital for a title before a name; small letter for a title on its own	I met Dr Khan and the prime minister.	B2
capitals on the main words of a title; small letters on articles, prepositions and conjunctions inside it	I loved The Lord of the Rings.	B2
capital for every letter of an acronym	Both NASA and the EU fund the project.	B2
capital for a compass point only when it is part of a name	We drove south. ≠ She was born in South Africa.	B2

Layout: paragraphs, letters and emailsB2

Rule	Example
a mark follows its word with no space before it and one space after it	Wait, please.	B2
a new paragraph starts a new topic or a new stage of an argument	—	B2

Writing to	Opening	Closing
someone you know by name	Dear Mr Smith,	Yours sincerely, (US: Sincerely,)	B2
someone you do not know by name	Dear Sir or Madam,	Yours faithfully,	B2
a friend or colleague	Hi Tom,	Best wishes,	B2

Comma: meaning and longer phrasesC1

No commas	Commas
tells which brother: I have several	adds a fact about my only brother	C1
My brother who lives in Leeds is a vet.	My brother, who lives in Leeds, is a vet.	C1
tells which students: only some passed	adds a fact about all the students	C1
The students who passed got a prize.	The students, who passed, got a prize.	C1
tells which friend: I have several	adds a fact about my only friend	C1
My friend Anna lives here.	My friend, Anna, lives here.	C1

Rule	Example
a linker such as however or therefore inside a clause takes a comma on each side	The hotel, however, was clean.	C1
which after a comma refers to the whole clause before it	It rained all day, which spoiled the picnic.	C1
such as and including take commas when the examples add information	She loves big cities, such as Paris and Rome. / Many cities, including Paris, are expensive.	C1
a comma follows an opening phrase with ‑ing or ‑ed	Having finished, she left. / Surprised by the news, he sat down.	C1
a comma follows an absolute phrase, which has a subject of its own	The work done, they went home.	C1
a that‑clause follows its verb or noun with no comma	She said that she was ill. / The idea that we should wait is wrong.	C1

Parentheses, brackets, ellipsis and slashC1

Point	Rule	Example
parentheses	hold an aside that can be removed; the full stop stays outside	We left early (at six).	C1
parentheses	keep the full stop inside when they hold a whole sentence	We left early. (It was raining.)	C1
square brackets	add the writer’s words inside a quotation; [sic] marks a mistake in the original	‘He [the manager] said no.’	C1
ellipsis ...	three full stops show words left out of a quotation, or a pause	‘The report ... was late.’	C1
slash	joins alternatives, with no spaces round it: and/or	Please bring a passport and/or a driving licence.	C1
bullet list	a colon follows the lead-in, and every item ends the same way	—	C1

Quotations, titles and abbreviationsC1

Rule	Example
a quotation inside a quotation takes the other kind of mark	Tom said, ‘Ana called the plan “perfect” and left.’ (US: Tom said, “Ana called the plan ‘perfect’ and left.”)	C1
a long quotation stands as an indented block, without quotation marks	—	C1
titles of books, films, newspapers and albums are in italics	She is reading Emma.	C1
titles of articles, poems, songs and chapters take quotation marks	I like the poem ‘Ozymandias’.	C1
title case begins every main word; sentence case begins only the first word and names	How Children Learn to Read / How children learn to read	C1
e.g. introduces examples; a comma goes before it, and American English adds one after it	She likes hot drinks, e.g. tea and cocoa. (US: She likes hot drinks, e.g., tea and cocoa.)	C1
i.e. restates what came before, with the same commas as e.g.	She is vegetarian, i.e. she eats no meat. (US: She is vegetarian, i.e., she eats no meat.)	C1

Compare: dash, colon, semicolon and full stopC1

Mark	Choose it to	Example
colon :	explain or list what the first clause announces	She had one fear: heights.	C1
semicolon ;	balance two related statements of equal weight	Tom likes tea; Ana likes coffee.	C1
dash –	add an emphatic or informal turn	He promised to call – he never did.	C1
full stop .	keep two statements fully separate	It was late. We went home.	C1

Typical errorsB2–C1

Wrong	Right	Rule
She asked where I was going?	She asked where I was going.	an indirect question ends with a full stop	B2
What a view!!!	What a view!	one exclamation mark is enough	B2
It was late, we went home.	It was late, so we went home.	a comma alone cannot join two main clauses	B2
The man in the grey coat, is my uncle.	The man in the grey coat is my uncle.	no comma stands between a subject and its verb	B2
My sister, who lives in Leeds is a nurse.	My sister, who lives in Leeds, is a nurse.	a non-defining clause needs a comma at both ends	B2
The dog wagged it’s tail.	The dog wagged its tail.	its shows ownership and takes no apostrophe	B2
Its raining again.	It’s raining again.	it’s = it is or it has	B2
two CD’s and three MP’s	two CDs and three MPs	a plural takes no apostrophe	B2
I need: a pen and a form.	I need a pen and a form.	a colon follows a complete clause, never a verb	B2
a five-years-old child	a five-year-old child	a unit in a hyphenated modifier stays singular	B2
‘Come in.’ she said.	‘Come in,’ she said.	a comma, not a full stop, ends speech before the speaker	B2
My teacher is polish and speaks english.	My teacher is Polish and speaks English.	nationalities and languages take a capital letter	B2
She said, that she was ill.	She said that she was ill.	no comma stands before a that‑clause	C1
The hotel however was clean.	The hotel, however, was clean.	however inside a clause takes a comma on each side	C1
Having finished she left.	Having finished, she left.	a comma follows an opening participle phrase	C1
It rained all day which spoiled the picnic.	It rained all day, which spoiled the picnic.	which referring to a whole clause follows a comma	C1

Up next

PluralsA0B2Most nouns add -s (books), nouns ending in s, sh, ch or x add -es, and consonant + y becomes -ies.

Up next

Articles: a, an, theA1C2A and an for one thing, the for a thing both people know, and no article for things in general.

Up next

Articles: a, an, theA1C2A and an for one thing, the for a thing both people know, and no article for things in general.

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CheatsheetB2–C1

Sentence ends and abbreviationsB2

CommaB2

ApostropheB2

Colon and semicolonB2

Hyphen and dashB2

Quotation marks and direct speechB2

Capital lettersB2

Layout: paragraphs, letters and emailsB2

Comma: meaning and longer phrasesC1

Parentheses, brackets, ellipsis and slashC1

Quotations, titles and abbreviationsC1

Compare: dash, colon, semicolon and full stopC1

Typical errorsB2–C1

Contents

English

01Foundations

02Nouns and determiners

03Pronouns

04Verbs

05Tenses

06Modal verbs

07Sentence building

08Adjectives and adverbs

09Prepositions

10Word formation

A0Starter

A1Beginner

A2Elementary

B1Intermediate

B2Upper intermediate

C1Advanced

C2Proficiency

Level