Conjunctions and LinkersA1–B1

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Linkers join ideas: and adds, but contrasts, or offers a choice, because gives a reason and so gives a result. A comma comes before but and so between two clauses: I was tired, so I left.

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CheatsheetA1–B1

Point	Rule	Example
and, or	and adds an idea, or gives a choice; usually no comma before them	I like tea and coffee. / Do you want tea or coffee?
but, so	but contrasts, so gives a result; usually a comma before them	I like tea, but I don't like coffee. / I'm tired, so I go to bed.
because	gives the reason; a clause follows	I'm tired because I work late.
A2when, before, after	a time clause; the present simple talks about the future	When I arrive, I'll call you.
A2also, too	also goes before the main verb and after be; too goes at the end	I also speak French. / I speak French too.
B1however	starts a new sentence; a comma follows	It was raining. However, we went out.
B1so that	gives a purpose; a clause follows	I left early so that I could catch the bus.
B1unless	unless means if … not	We stay in unless it stops raining.
A2Trap	because of is followed by a noun	We stayed in because of the rain.
B1Trap	although joins two clauses and replaces but	Although it was raining, we went out.

Basic linkers: and, but, or, because, soA1–A2

Linker	Use	Example
and	adds an idea	I like tea and coffee.
but	shows a contrast	I like tea, but I don't like coffee.
or	gives a choice	Do you want tea or coffee?
because	gives the reason	I'm tired because I work late.
so	gives the result	I'm tired, so I go to bed.

Between two full clauses, but and so usually take a comma before them: I was tired, so I left.
and, or and because usually have no comma before them.
because is followed by a clause: a subject and a verb.
A2because of is followed by a noun: We stayed in because of the rain.

Time linkers: when, before, after, thenA2

Linker	Pattern	Example
when	when + clause	When I get home, I cook.
before	before + clause	I wash my hands before I eat.
after	after + clause	We go home after the film ends.
then	clause, then + clause	I had lunch, then I went home.

A time clause that starts the sentence takes a comma after it: When it rains, we stay in.
After when, before and after the present simple talks about the future: When I arrive, I'll call you.

Adding: also, too, as well as, in additionA2–B1

Linker	Example
also	I also speak French. / She is also a nurse.
too	I speak French too.
B1as well as	She speaks French as well as Spanish.
B1in addition	In addition, the hotel has a pool.

also goes before the main verb and after be. too goes at the end.
B1as well as is followed by a noun or an -ing form.
B1in addition starts a sentence and is followed by a comma.

Contrast: although, however, whileB1

Linker	Pattern	Example
although	although + clause, clause	Although it was raining, we went out.
however	sentence. However, sentence	It was raining. However, we went out.
while	while + clause, clause	While I like tea, my wife prefers coffee.

although joins two clauses in one sentence and replaces but.
even though is a stronger although: Even though I was tired, I went out.
however usually starts a new sentence and is followed by a comma.
while also means at the same time: I read while I eat.

Purpose and condition: so that, unlessB1

Linker	Pattern	Example
so that	so that + clause	I left early so that I could catch the bus.
unless	unless = if … not	We stay in unless it stops raining.

More on unless: Conditionals: Zero, First and Second.

Typical errorsA2–B1

✗	✓	Rule
B1Although it was raining, but we went out.	Although it was raining, we went out.	although replaces but
We stayed in because the rain.	We stayed in because of the rain.	because + clause, because of + noun
We stayed in because of it was raining.	We stayed in because it was raining.	because of + noun only
B1It was cold, however we went out.	It was cold. However, we went out.	however starts a new sentence and takes a comma
I speak French also.	I also speak French. / I speak French too.	also goes before the main verb, too at the end