# Prefixes and Suffixes

https://langs123.com/en/english/word-formation/prefixes-suffixes/
CEFR B2–C2 · 2026-10-19 · CC BY 4.0, langs123 contributors (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

> Prefixes and suffixes build new words from a base: a suffix sets the word class, a prefix adds meaning, and a suffix can move the stress. The suffix, not the base, gives the word class: enjoy → enjoyment, enjoy → enjoyable

## Cheatsheet

| Point | Rule | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Suffixes | -tion / -ment / -ness make nouns; -able / -ful / -ous make adjectives | educate → education / kind → kindness / enjoy → enjoyable |
| Verb formation | -ise / -ify / -en / en- make verbs | simple → simplify / short → shorten / rich → enrich |
| Negative prefixes | un- / in- / dis- / non- / mis- negate; in- becomes im-, il-, ir- | happy → unhappy / agree → disagree |
| Other prefixes | re- again, over- too much, under- too little, ex- former | write → rewrite / cook → overcook / wife → ex-wife |
| Sound | some suffixes move the stress and shorten the vowel | ˈphotograph → photoˈgraphic / divide → division |
| Trap | possible takes in-, which becomes im- before p | It is impossible to finish today. |
| Productive suffixes | -ish / -y / -able / -ify / -ism attach freely to new bases | download → downloadable / solid → solidify |
| -ity / -ness | -ity usually follows a Latinate adjective, -ness a native one | possible → possibility / kind → kindness |
| Combining forms | Greek and Latin forms build technical words | biology / geography / telephone |
| Register | Latinate words sound more formal than their native partners | begin = commence / enough = sufficient |
| Look-alikes | a pair of suffixes can split the meaning | an economic crisis / an economical car |
| Rare and new affixes | hyper- and pseudo- are learned; -holic and -gate are coinages | hypersensitive / pseudonym / workaholic |

## Overview

- A suffix ends a word and usually sets its class; a prefix starts it and usually keeps the class. happy → happiness / happy → unhappy
- Read a new word in order: the suffix gives the class, the prefix adds meaning, the base the core. dis + agree + ment → disagreement
- Letters that look like an affix are not always one: singer has -er, finger does not.

## Noun suffixes

| Suffix | Makes | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -tion / -sion / -ation | verb → noun: the action or its result | educate → education / decide → decision / inform → information |
| -ment | verb → noun: the action or its result | improve → improvement / develop → development / agree → agreement |
| -ness | adjective → noun: a quality or state | kind → kindness / dark → darkness / happy → happiness |
| -ity | adjective → noun: a quality or state | able → ability / active → activity / popular → popularity |
| -ence / -ance | verb / adjective → noun: an action, quality or state | perform → performance / differ → difference / important → importance |
| -ship | noun → noun: a state, a relationship or a skill | friend → friendship / member → membership / leader → leadership |
| -hood | noun → noun: a stage or state of life | child → childhood / adult → adulthood / parent → parenthood |
| -dom | noun / adjective → noun: a state or a realm | free → freedom / king → kingdom / bore → boredom |
| -er / -or / -ist / -ian | verb / noun → person: the person who does it | teach → teacher / art → artist / music → musician |
| -ism | noun / adjective → noun: a belief, a system or a practice | tour → tourism / journal → journalism / real → realism |
| -th | adjective → noun: a measure, with a changed vowel | long → length / deep → depth / wide → width / strong → strength |

## Adjective suffixes

| Suffix | Makes | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -able / -ible | verb → adjective: that can be done | enjoy → enjoyable / accept → acceptable / reverse → reversible |
| -ful | noun → adjective: full of | care → careful / success → successful / use → useful |
| -less | noun → adjective: without | home → homeless / hope → hopeless / end → endless |
| -ive | verb → adjective: tending to | act → active / create → creative / attract → attractive |
| -ous | noun → adjective: having the quality | danger → dangerous / fame → famous / adventure → adventurous |
| -al | noun → adjective: relating to | nation → national / culture → cultural / tradition → traditional |
| -ic / -ical | noun → adjective: relating to | artist → artistic / biology → biological / geography → geographical |
| -y | noun → adjective: full of, or like | rain → rainy / salt → salty / health → healthy |
| -ish | noun → adjective: like, or typical of | child → childish / fool → foolish / style → stylish |
| -ly | noun → adjective: like, or every | friend → friendly / love → lovely / week → weekly |
| -ent / -ant | verb → adjective: doing or being | depend → dependent / please → pleasant / resist → resistant |

## Verb formation

| Affix | Makes | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -ise (US: -ize) | adjective / noun → verb: make or become | modern → modernise (US: modernize) / real → realise (US: realize) / memory → memorise (US: memorize) |
| -ify | adjective / noun → verb: make | simple → simplify / class → classify / pure → purify |
| -en | adjective / noun → verb: make or become | short → shorten / wide → widen / strength → strengthen |
| en- / em- | adjective / noun → verb: put into a state; em- stands before b, m and p | able → enable / rich → enrich / power → empower |
| be- | noun / adjective → verb: treat as, or make | friend → befriend / little → belittle |

## Negative and reversing prefixes

| Prefix | Use | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| un- with an adjective or participle | not | happy → unhappy / fair → unfair / finished → unfinished |
| un- with a verb | reverses the action | do → undo / lock → unlock / pack → unpack |
| in- / im- / il- / ir- | not, with an adjective; im- stands before b, m and p, il- before l, ir- before r | correct → incorrect / possible → impossible / legal → illegal / regular → irregular |
| dis- | the opposite, or the lack of it | agree → disagree / like → dislike / honest → dishonest / connect → disconnect |
| non- | not, or without | stop → non-stop / fiction → non-fiction / smoker → non-smoker |
| mis- | wrongly or badly | understand → misunderstand / spell → misspell / lead → mislead |
| de- | removes or reverses | code → decode / frost → defrost / activate → deactivate |
| anti- | against | social → antisocial / clockwise → anticlockwise (US: counterclockwise) / smoking → anti-smoking |

- Most bases take only one negative prefix: learn the pair with the word. unhappy / impossible / dishonest

## Other prefixes

| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| re- | again | write → rewrite / build → rebuild / start → restart |
| pre- | before | heat → preheat / view → preview / historic → prehistoric |
| post- | after | graduate → postgraduate / script → postscript |
| over- | too much | work → overwork / cook → overcook / crowded → overcrowded |
| under- | too little, or below | pay → underpay / estimate → underestimate / ground → underground |
| out- | more or better than | run → outrun / live → outlive / number → outnumber |
| sub- | under, below | way → subway / title → subtitle / standard → substandard |
| super- | above, more than | market → supermarket / human → superhuman / natural → supernatural |
| inter- | between | national → international / act → interact / net → internet |
| trans- | across, or into another state | Atlantic → transatlantic / form → transform / plant → transplant |
| multi- | many | national → multinational / cultural → multicultural / purpose → multipurpose |
| semi- | half, partly | circle → semicircle / final → semi-final / detached → semi-detached |
| mid- | the middle of | night → midnight / summer → midsummer / week → midweek |
| co- | together | author → co-author / exist → coexist / worker → co-worker |
| ex- | former | wife → ex-wife / president → ex-president / boss → ex-boss |
| self- | of, to or by oneself | employed → self-employed / confident → self-confident / service → self-service |
| bi- / tri- | two, three | lingual → bilingual / cycle → bicycle / angle → triangle |

## Spelling: joining an affix

| Join | Rule | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -tion and -sion after some verbs | the base changes its letters | explain → explanation / pronounce → pronunciation / repeat → repetition / decide → decision |
| ex- / self- / non- | a hyphen follows the prefix | ex-wife / self-employed / non-stop |
| a prefix before a capital letter or a number | a hyphen follows the prefix | anti-American / pre-1990 / mid-July |

- Doubling, silent e and y to i apply to affixes as to any ending: see Spelling Rules.

## Pronunciation: stress and sound changes

| Change | Rule | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| stress moves | -ic / -ical / -ity / -ion put the stress on the syllable before the suffix | ˈphotograph → photoˈgraphic / eˈlectric → elecˈtricity |
| stress stays | -ness / -ment / -ful / -ly / un- / dis- / mis- leave the stress on the base | ˈhappy → ˈhappiness / aˈgree → disaˈgree |
| the vowel shortens | a long vowel or diphthong often becomes short in the longer word | serene /səˈriːn/ → serenity /səˈrenəti/ · sane /seɪn/ → sanity /ˈsænəti/ · divide /dɪˈvaɪd/ → division /dɪˈvɪʒn/ |
| the consonant changes | -ity / -ian change the sound of a final c | electric /ɪˈlektrɪk/ → electricity /ɪˌlekˈtrɪsəti/ · music /ˈmjuːzɪk/ → musician /mjuˈzɪʃn/ |

- The stress patterns of suffixes are set out in Sounds and IPA.

## Productive suffixes and their limits

| Suffix | Rule | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -ish | added to an adjective, a number or a time in speech: roughly | tall → tallish / cold → coldish / eight → eightish |
| -y | added to a noun or verb for an informal adjective of quality | stretch → stretchy / bend → bendy / fizz → fizzy |
| -able | added to a verb that takes an object, new verbs included | download → downloadable / recycle → recyclable / wash → washable |
| -ise / -ify | -ise forms new verbs freely, especially in business; -ify joins short bases | private → privatise (US: privatize) / priority → prioritise (US: prioritize) / game → gamify |
| -ation | -ise gives -isation, -ify gives -ification | organise → organisation (US: organize → organization) / simplify → simplification |
| -ism | names a movement from a person or a noun; its follower takes -ist | minimal → minimalism / Darwin → Darwinism / individual → individualism |

| Suffix | Makes | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -proof | noun → adjective: protected against | water → waterproof / child → childproof / fire → fireproof |
| -friendly | noun → adjective: suited to, or kind to | user → user-friendly / child → child-friendly / eco → eco-friendly |
| -free | noun → adjective: without | sugar → sugar-free / hassle → hassle-free / tax → tax-free |
| -led | noun → adjective: directed by | teacher → teacher-led / student → student-led / export → export-led |
| -wise | noun → adverb: as far as the noun is concerned, in informal speech | money → moneywise / weather → weatherwise / time → timewise |

| Point | Rule | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -ity | usually follows a Latinate adjective | possible → possibility / generous → generosity / electric → electricity |
| -ness | usually follows a native adjective, and joins almost any new one | kind → kindness / dark → darkness / awkward → awkwardness |
| order of suffixes | each suffix joins the word class that the one before it made | nation → national → nationalise → nationalisation (US: nation → national → nationalize → nationalization) |
| prefix in a chain | a prefix joins the word it fits, and a suffix can follow | break → breakable → unbreakable → unbreakability |

## Greek and Latin combining forms

| Form | Meaning | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| bio- | life | biology / biography / biodiversity |
| geo- | earth | geography / geology / geothermal |
| hydro- | water | hydroelectric / hydrogen / hydrofoil |
| photo- | light | photograph / photocopy / photosynthesis |
| tele- | far, at a distance | telephone / television / telescope |
| micro- | very small | microscope / microwave / microphone |
| macro- | large, on a large scale | macroeconomics / macronutrient / macroscopic |
| mono- | one, single | monologue / monotone / monolingual |
| poly- | many | polygon / polyglot / polytechnic |
| auto- | self | autobiography / automatic / autopilot |

| Form | Meaning | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -logy | the study of | biology / psychology / technology |
| -graphy | writing, drawing or recording | geography / photography / biography |
| -phobia | fear of | claustrophobia / arachnophobia / xenophobia |
| -cracy | rule by | democracy / bureaucracy / aristocracy |
| -ectomy | surgical removal of | appendicectomy (US: appendectomy) / tonsillectomy / vasectomy |

- A linking o joins a form that ends in a consonant to the next form. psych + o + logy → psychology
- -ology / -graphy put the stress on the syllable before the ending. biˈology / geˈography / psyˈchology

## Adjectives in -ed

| Pattern | Rule | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| noun + ed | having the noun; many have no verb behind them | talent → talented / beard → bearded / wood → wooded |
| adjective + noun + ed | having that feature; a hyphen joins the parts before a noun | a blue-eyed girl / a kind-hearted man / a left-handed player |

- The noun in the compound stays singular. a long-legged bird / a two-faced friend

## Compare: everyday and formal words

| Everyday | Formal |
| --- | --- |
| The meeting will begin at nine. | The meeting will commence at nine. |
| We bought the tickets online. | We purchased the tickets online. |
| I asked about the price. | I enquired (US: inquired) about the price. |
| The test shows that the plan works. | The test demonstrates that the plan works. |
| We have enough time. | We have sufficient time. |
| You can get a form at the desk. | You can obtain a form at the desk. |
| Visitors need a pass. | Visitors require a pass. |

| Point | Register | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -ate / -ify / -ant / -ion | Latinate endings build formal and technical words | speed up = accelerate / make clear = clarify / helper = assistant / choice = selection |
| Latinate verbs | a Latinate verb replaces a phrasal verb in formal writing: see Phrasal Verbs: Core | put off = postpone / find out = discover / put up with = tolerate |

## Compare: look-alike derivations

| Pair | Difference | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| economic / economical | economic relates to the economy; economical means not wasteful | an economic crisis / an economical car |
| historic / historical | historic means important in history; historical means about the past | a historic victory / a historical novel |
| classic / classical | classic means typical or of lasting quality; classical means of ancient Greece and Rome or of a formal tradition | a classic mistake / a classical concert |
| electric / electrical | electric means powered by electricity; electrical means about electricity in general | an electric kettle / an electrical engineer |
| sensible / sensitive | sensible means practical and reasonable; sensitive means quick to feel or easily hurt | a sensible choice / sensitive skin |
| continual / continuous | continual means repeated with breaks; continuous means without a break | continual interruptions / a continuous line |
| imaginary / imaginative | imaginary means existing only in the mind; imaginative means full of new ideas | an imaginary friend / an imaginative writer |
| childish / childlike | childish means silly and not mature; childlike means innocent and simple | childish jokes / childlike wonder |
| respectable / respectful / respective | respectable means of good standing; respectful means showing respect; respective means belonging to each one separately | a respectable family / a respectful pupil / their respective rooms |

## Agent and gender suffixes

| Suffix | Rule | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -er / -ee | -er names the one who acts, -ee the one who receives the action | employer ≠ employee / interviewer ≠ interviewee / trainer ≠ trainee |
| -ee | also names a person in a state or role, with no matching -er word | absentee / escapee / refugee |
| -ess | marks a woman and stays in titles | princess / duchess / countess |
| -person | -man in a job title gives way to -person | chairman → chairperson / spokesman → spokesperson / salesman → salesperson |
| a neutral word | one word serves any person | actress → actor / policeman → police officer / stewardess → flight attendant |

## Learned and rare affixes

| Affix | Meaning | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| hyper- / hypo- | hyper- means over, above normal; hypo- means under, below normal | hyperactive / hypersensitive / hypothermia / hypoallergenic |
| para- | beside, beyond, or helping | paramedic / paranormal / paraphrase |
| pseudo- | false | pseudonym / pseudoscience |
| quasi- | seeming, partly | quasi-official / quasi-legal |
| neo- | new, revived | neoclassical / neolithic / neologism |
| mal- | bad, badly | malfunction / malnutrition / malpractice |
| ante- | before; anti- means against | antenatal / antechamber |
| intra- | within | intranet / intravenous / intrapersonal |
| extra- | outside, beyond | extraordinary / extracurricular / extraterrestrial |
| circum- | around | circumference / circumnavigate / circumvent |
| contra- | against | contradict / contraflow / contraception |
| -itis | inflammation of | arthritis / bronchitis / tonsillitis |
| -ate | Latin endings of verbs, adjectives and nouns: /eɪt/ in a verb, /ət/ in the others | to estimate /ˈestɪmeɪt/ ≠ an estimate /ˈestɪmət/ · to separate /ˈsepəreɪt/ ≠ a separate room /ˈseprət/ |
| a- | in a state or position; most such adjectives stand after the verb | The baby is asleep. / The house was aflame. / The boat is afloat. |
| be- | all over, thoroughly; literary | deck → bedeck / witch → bewitch / dazzle → bedazzle |

## Coinage

| Affix | Meaning | Examples |
| --- | --- | --- |
| -gate | a scandal, after Watergate | Partygate / Dieselgate |
| -holic / -aholic | addicted to, or unable to stop, after alcoholic | workaholic / shopaholic / chocoholic |
| -athon | a long event, after marathon | hackathon / telethon / walkathon |
| -ista | a follower or enthusiast, after Spanish | fashionista |
| -ism | prejudice against a group | ageism / sexism / ableism |
| e- / cyber- / eco- / mega- | e- and cyber- mean online; eco- means environmental; mega- means very large | e-commerce / cyberattack / eco-tourism / megastore |

- A coinage may be informal or short-lived: check a dictionary before using one in formal writing.

## Typical errors

| ✗ | ✓ | Rule |
| --- | --- | --- |
| unpossible | impossible | possible takes in-, which becomes im- before p |
| unhonest | dishonest | honest takes dis- |
| enjoyful | enjoyable | enjoy takes -able, not -ful |
| strongen | strengthen | -en joins the noun strength |
| She answered friendlily. | She answered in a friendly way. | an adjective in -ly has no adverb: use a phrase |
| possibleness | possibility | a Latinate adjective takes -ity |
| simplifation | simplification | a verb in -ify takes -ification |
| a blue eyes girl | a blue-eyed girl | the compound adjective takes -ed and a singular noun |
| an economic car | an economical car | economical means not wasteful |
| sensible skin | sensitive skin | sensitive means quick to feel; sensible means reasonable |
| a historic novel | a historical novel | historical means about the past |
| continuous interruptions | continual interruptions | continual means repeated with breaks |
| an asleep baby | a sleeping baby | most adjectives in a- stand after the verb |
| their respectful rooms | their respective rooms | respective means belonging to each one separately |