# Discourse Markers and Hedging

https://langs123.com/en/english/sentence-building/discourse-markers/
CEFR B2–C2 · 2026-10-19 · CC BY 4.0, langs123 contributors (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

> Discourse markers such as well and anyway organise talk, hedges such as sort of soften a claim, and formal markers shape an argument. A marker stands outside the clause, set off by a comma or a pause: To be honest, I'm a bit tired.

## Cheatsheet

| Point | Rule | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Spoken markers | each marks a job: start, shift, return, check, correct, conclude | By the way, did you call Anna? |
| Hedges | soften a word or a claim: sort of, a bit, I'd say | I'd say it's a bit late. |
| Vague language | or so, and so on and or something leave the detail open | Let's have a coffee or something. |
| Turn-taking | set phrases hold the floor, interrupt, agree and show you listen | Sorry to interrupt, but the shop closes at five. |
| Stance | frankly, to be fair and in fact show how the speaker sees a point | To be fair, he did say sorry. |
| Academic hedging | tend to, may and suggest fit a claim to its evidence; boosters raise it | Prices tend to rise in summer. |
| Indirectness | soften a request or a disagreement: I was wondering if, with all due respect | I was wondering if you could help me. |
| Distancing | allegedly, reportedly and so-called credit a claim to others | The man allegedly took the car. |
| Understatement and irony | not bad and not exactly say less than they mean; the tune shows it | How was the film? — Not bad. |
| Formal markers | that said, to that end and by the same token link the steps of a formal argument | The cost is high. That said, the benefits are clear. |
| Metadiscourse | preview, review and reformulate in a long talk | I'd like to begin by thanking you all. |
| Trap | according to names a source; give your own view with in my opinion | In my opinion, the plan is weak. |

## Overview

- A discourse marker organises talk or shows the speaker's attitude; the clause keeps its meaning without it. Well, I'm not sure.
- The same marker can do several jobs, and the situation shows which. Anyway, as I was saying, we leave at nine. / Anyway, that's it for today.
- Linkers such as however and therefore join clauses. See Conjunctions and Linkers.

## Spoken markers by function

| Job | Markers | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Starting or shifting | well / right / OK / so / now / anyway | Right, let's begin. |
| Continuing | and / then / so / I mean / you see / you know | I can't come. You see, I have to work. |
| Changing topic | by the way / speaking of / that reminds me | By the way, did you call Anna? |
| Returning | anyway / as I was saying / to get back to | To get back to the budget, we have two weeks. |
| Checking | you know? / right? | It's a long way, you know? ↗ |
| Correcting | I mean / or rather / that is | We met on Monday, I mean Tuesday. / She lives in Leeds, or rather near Leeds. |
| Concluding | anyway / so / that's it | That's the plan. So, see you at nine. |

- A marker usually opens its clause; a comma sets it off in writing and a pause in speech. Well, I think we should wait.
- Checking markers come at the end of the clause and take a rising tune. You're coming, right? ↗
- Well, you know and I mean are informal; by the way and as I was saying suit any situation.
- A question tag also checks a statement. See Question Tags.

## Hedges and softeners

| Softens | Markers | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| A word | sort of / kind of / a bit / rather / somewhat / quite / fairly | He is sort of shy. / The soup is a bit cold. |
| An opinion | I'd say / I suppose / I guess / if you ask me | I'd say it's too expensive. |
| Bad news or a refusal | I'm afraid / actually / to be honest | I'm afraid I can't come. |
| Certainty or source | as far as I know / it seems / apparently | As far as I know, the shop opens at ten. |
| Exactness | more or less | The work is more or less finished. |

- Sort of and kind of go before an adjective or a verb and sound informal. The film was kind of sad. / I sort of agree.
- A bit takes an adjective, or of a and a noun. It is a bit late. / It is a bit of a problem.
- Fairly, quite and rather rise in strength; rather often carries mild surprise. The food was fairly good. / The food was quite good. / The food was rather good.

## Vague language

| Kind | Markers | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| An amount or a time | or so | We waited ten minutes or so. |
| The end of a list | and so on / and so forth | We sell hats, scarves, gloves and so on. |
| An extender with and | and everything / and that | He has a car and everything. |
| An extender with or | or something / or anything / or whatever | We could go for a walk or whatever. |
| An approximate description | something like that | She is a nurse, something like that. |
| A vague noun | stuff / thing | I need to buy some stuff for the trip. |

- Or anything follows a negative statement; or something follows a positive statement or an offer. I haven't got a pen or anything. / Do you want a drink or something?
- Vague language suits friendly speech; formal writing gives the exact name or number.

## Turn-taking

| Move | Words | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Filling a pause | er / um | It was, um, about ten years ago. |
| Holding the floor | let me think / how shall I put it | How shall I put it? It was a surprise. |
| Interrupting politely | Sorry to interrupt, but … / Can I just say … | Sorry to interrupt, but the shop closes at five. |
| Agreeing in part | I see what you mean, but … | I see what you mean, but it costs too much. |
| Disagreeing gently | I'm not so sure | It's the best plan. — I'm not so sure. |
| Showing you listen | uh-huh / I see / really | I got the job! — Really? ↗ |

- A backchannel word is short, and the speaker keeps the turn. First I went to Leeds. — Uh-huh.

## Stance markers

| Stance | Markers | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Frankness | frankly / honestly / to tell the truth | Frankly, I found the book dull. |
| Fairness to the other side | to be fair / mind you / then again | To be fair, he did say sorry. / The hotel was noisy. Mind you, it was cheap. |
| A reason to accept | after all | Let her go. After all, she is an adult. |
| A fact that corrects or surprises | as a matter of fact / in fact / actually | I thought he was rich. Actually, he has no money. |
| Whatever happens | in any case | In any case, we have until Friday. |
| A bright side or a minimum | at least | At least it didn't rain. / Call me at least once a week. |
| Restating | in other words | He was let go. In other words, he was fired. |
| A loose fit | so to speak / as it were / in a sense | He is, so to speak, the boss's right hand. |

- Mind you and then again follow a statement and add a point that weakens it. The film was long. Then again, it was good.

## Hedging and boosting in academic writing

| Device | Words | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| A hedging verb | tend to / appear to / seem to | Prices tend to rise in summer. |
| A modal verb | may / might / could | The change may reduce costs. |
| A reporting verb | suggest / indicate | The survey suggests that most people agree. |
| A probability phrase | it is likely that / it is possible that | It is likely that demand will grow. |
| A limiting adverb | to some extent / largely / generally / on the whole | The project was largely a success. |
| An attitude adverb | arguably / presumably | This is arguably the best result so far. |
| A booster | clearly / undoubtedly / it is evident that | The figures clearly show a rise. |

- A hedge fits the strength of a claim to its evidence; a booster raises it.
- A claim can take a booster and a hedge together. The data clearly show a link, but it may not hold for adults.
- Academic writing uses tend to, may and suggest; sort of and I guess belong to speech.
- The modals of possibility are in May and Might.

## Indirectness and politeness

| Move | Phrase | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Asking for help | I was wondering if … / I don't suppose you could … | I was wondering if you could help me. / I don't suppose you could lend me a pen? |
| Disagreeing | With all due respect, … / I take your point, but … | With all due respect, I think the figures are wrong. / I take your point, but we have no time. |
| Refusing or giving bad news | Unfortunately, … / I'm afraid … | Unfortunately, the post has been filled. / I'm afraid we are fully booked. |

- After I was wondering if, the clause keeps statement order and usually takes could or would. I was wondering if you could send it today.
- Unfortunately opens formal bad news; I'm afraid does the same in speech.
- Would and could soften a request. See Would.

## Distancing and attribution

| Marker | Shows | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| allegedly | a claim made but not proved | The man allegedly took the car. |
| reportedly | a report the writer has not checked | The film reportedly cost ten million. |
| supposedly | a belief the writer doubts | This is supposedly the best café in town. |
| so-called | a name that may not fit | His so-called friends never helped. |
| according to | another person or document as the source | According to the report, sales fell. |
| it is + said + that + clause | a general report with no named source | It is said that the mayor will resign. |

- Allegedly and reportedly stand before the main verb or at the start of the clause. The company has reportedly closed. / Reportedly, the company has closed.
- A passive reporting verb with to puts a claim at a distance: She is said to speak six languages.
- Reporting verbs are in Reported Speech.

## Understatement, irony and implication

| Device | Meaning | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| A bit of a | a big problem, said lightly | The holiday was a bit of a disaster: we missed the flight. |
| Not bad | good, often very good | How was the film? — Not bad. |
| Not exactly | no, or only in part | Are you ready? — Not exactly. I haven't started. |
| Rather | more than expected | That was rather a surprise. |
| Quite as a reply | full agreement, in British English | It's a shame they lost. — Quite. |
| Hardly the best | a poor one | That is hardly the best way to start. |
| Irony | the opposite of the words, shown by the tune and the situation | Look, it's pouring. — Lovely weather! ↗↘ |
| Implication | a remark that asks for action | It's a bit cold in here. — I'll close the window. |

- Understatement says less than it means, and the situation completes the meaning.
- The tune of the voice carries the meaning: the same words can praise or criticise.
- The tunes are in Connected Speech and Intonation.

## Markers of formal speech and writing

| Job | Markers | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Conceding, then turning | be that as it may / having said that / that said | The cost is high. That said, the benefits are clear. |
| Drawing a consequence | in light of this | In light of this, we ask for more time. |
| Giving the purpose | to that end | The aim is to cut costs. To that end, we shall close two offices. |
| Adding a parallel point | by the same token / in the same vein | He expects loyalty; by the same token, he gives it. / In the same vein, she thanked the staff. |
| Speaking bluntly | to put it bluntly | To put it bluntly, the plan has failed. |
| Stating the obvious | needless to say / it goes without saying | Needless to say, we shall pay on time. |
| Summing up | by and large / all in all | By and large, the trip was a success. |
| Setting the precision | strictly speaking / broadly speaking | Strictly speaking, a tomato is a fruit. / Broadly speaking, prices are falling. |

- A formal marker opens its sentence and takes a comma.
- Formal markers suit lectures, reports and essays; chat prefers well and anyway.

## Metadiscourse in extended speech

| Move | Phrase | Example |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Previewing the plan | I'd like to begin by + -ing | I'd like to begin by thanking you all. |
| Stating the main claim | What I want to argue is + that + clause | What I want to argue is that cities need more trees. |
| Referring back | as I mentioned earlier | As I mentioned earlier, the budget is fixed. |
| Promising to return | I'll come back to this | I'll come back to this after the break. |
| Restating | that is / put differently | The test is cheap; that is, it costs under a pound. / Prices rose; put differently, we pay more. |
| Listing the members | namely | There are two options, namely rent or buy. |
| Sharpening | to be more precise | It took a year, or, to be more precise, thirteen months. |

- Namely lists every member of a group; for example gives only some. Two groups pay, namely students and parents. ≠ Some groups pay, for example students.

## Typical errors

| ✗ | ✓ | Rule |
| --- | --- | --- |
| As far I know, the shop opens at ten. | As far as I know, the shop opens at ten. | as far as I know has two as |
| It's a bit problem. | It's a bit of a problem. | a bit takes an adjective, or of a and a noun |
| He is a sort of shy. | He is sort of shy. | sort of before an adjective takes no a |
| Actually, the shop is closed for repairs. | At the moment, the shop is closed for repairs. | actually adds a fact that differs from what the listener expects; at the moment means now |
| According to me, the plan is weak. | In my opinion, the plan is weak. | according to names another source; your own view takes in my opinion |
| These results prove that sleep helps memory. | These results suggest that sleep helps memory. | suggest and indicate fit most academic claims; prove needs complete evidence |
| The results are sort of surprising. | The results are somewhat surprising. | writing uses somewhat or rather where speech uses sort of |
| The result may possibly suggest a link. | The result may suggest a link. | a claim takes one hedge; a second hedge empties it |
| Needless to say, the meeting has moved to Friday. | Please note that the meeting has moved to Friday. | needless to say introduces what the listener already knows |
| Some groups pay, namely students. | Some groups pay, for example students. | namely lists every member; for example gives some |
| I'd like to begin by to thank you all. | I'd like to begin by thanking you all. | by is a preposition, so the -ing form follows |
| He works hard; by the same token, his brother is lazy. | He works hard; on the other hand, his brother is lazy. | by the same token adds a point from the same reason; contrast takes on the other hand |